Term
| What are amino acids derived from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the classes of hormones? |
|
Definition
| amines, steroids, protein hormones, and glycoproteins |
|
|
Term
| All hormones are ____ that stimulate signal transduction pathways |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do we regulate hormone activity? |
|
Definition
| precursor hormones, hormone turnover, and target tissues |
|
|
Term
| how can hormones lengthen their half-life? |
|
Definition
| binding to albumin to make them more stable |
|
|
Term
| What are steroid hormones removed by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Why is there a pharmacological difference between with hormones? 3 things |
|
Definition
| 1) increased resistance time so they are more likely to bind to a receptor 2) they are systemic 3) they release bioactive molecules when they bind |
|
|
Term
| What aids in regulation of water and electrolyte balance in the kidneys? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do releasing/inhibiting hormones bind to in the anterior pituitary? |
|
Definition
| pituicites (postsynaptic pituitary neurons) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tumor of the adrenal medulla, resulting in hypersecretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| The adrenal medulla secretes catecholamines in response to what? |
|
Definition
| stimulation by preganglionic sympatheic nerve fiber |
|
|
Term
| What is responsible for the flight or fight response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The effects of what are similar to the overactivation of the sympathetic nervous system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does ACTH stimulate? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does ACTH stumulate the release of |
|
Definition
| corticosteroids or corticoids |
|
|
Term
| What are all adrenal cortex hormones synthesized from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What corticosteroid reduces inflammation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What secretes sex hormones? |
|
Definition
| the gonads and adrenal cortex |
|
|
Term
| What type of corticosteroid is aldosterone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What two things can regulate electrolyte balance in the body? |
|
Definition
| aldosterone and prolactin |
|
|
Term
| What process does cortisol support |
|
Definition
| gluconeogenesis - increase blood glucose which will supply energy to the cell |
|
|
Term
| What are three ways to better deal with pharmacological problems with glucocorticoids? |
|
Definition
| eliminate the use, more specific receptor subtype agonists, local application |
|
|
Term
| What is addisons disease characterized by? |
|
Definition
| (hyposecretion of corticosteroids) changed in electrolyte balance and hydration |
|
|
Term
| What are the two lobes of the thyroid connected by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| secrete calcitonin which stimulates the secretion of calcium. |
|
|
Term
| What are t3 and t4 usually bound to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What four things do thyroid hormones do |
|
Definition
| alters gene transcription, stimulates protein synthesis, increases cellular respiration and elevates BMR |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thyroid stimulating antibody is secreted which causes the thyroid to release large amounts of thyroid hormone in an uncontrolled manner: toxic goiter |
|
|
Term
| When is parathyroid hormones released? |
|
Definition
| when calcium levels get too low |
|
|
Term
| Pancreatic gland: endocrine and exocrine |
|
Definition
Endocrine: digestion
Exocrine: insulin and glucagon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pineal gland, retina, lens |
|
|
Term
| What does melatonin inhibit |
|
Definition
| GnRH (delays onset of puberty) |
|
|
Term
| What is melatonin inhibited by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thymus, GI tract, gonads/placenta, endothelium, immune system cells, astrocytes |
|
|
Term
| How do glucocorticoids block the release of arachidonic acid from phospholipids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| platelet aggregation- inhibited by NSAIDS |
|
|
Term
| What is duchenne's muscular dystrophy? |
|
Definition
faulty production in dystrophin.
- Stabilizes membrane during contraction and relaxation and links intracellular cytoskeleton and ECOM
- Functional differentiation of muscle fibers and organization of postsynaptic membrane and AchRs |
|
|
Term
| What is structurally significant of the heart? |
|
Definition
| organized in striations formed by bands of cytoskeletal elements |
|
|
Term
| What is another name for the neuromuscular junction, and what neuron stimulates it? |
|
Definition
| motor end plate, acetylcholine |
|
|
Term
| TF, each axon can produce numerous axon collaterals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the somatic motor neuron and all the muscles it innervates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the basic unit of contraction |
|
|
Term
| muscle contraction starts with the shortening of its _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Does the sarcomere shorten? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| When are troponin and tropomyosin bound to actin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The sarcolemma and T tubules are depolarized at different times, TF? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cistern at end or SR that is a primary Ca++ release site |
|
|
Term
| How do you turn off muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
| Degrade ACh (acetylcholinesterase), Na channels close and sarcolemme repolarizes, Ca channels close, Ca-ATPases pump calcium out of the cell or into SR, tropomyosin blocks the actin binding site |
|
|
Term
| What is the inherited form of ALS caused by (Lou Gherigs) |
|
Definition
| a defect in superoxide dismutase. (SOD removes free radicals, and the mutant enzyme is not functional) So ALS in this case is an inability to neutralize the free radicals that you have in the body. |
|
|
Term
| resting length of muscles is maintained by: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What detects the length or streth of muscle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What monitors tension in the tendons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the point of sensory organs of muscles? |
|
Definition
| maintain actin/myosin overlap |
|
|
Term
| Action potentials of cardiac muscle cells contract _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| TF Cardiac muscle can be regulated by autonomic nerves? |
|
Definition
| True: ach, ephinephrine can increase the heart rate in response to ForF |
|
|
Term
| How are smooth muscles organized? |
|
Definition
| circular and longitudinal, to perform peristalsis |
|
|
Term
| TF smooth muscles contain sarcomeres |
|
Definition
| False! They dont need them because they contract using peristalsis |
|
|
Term
| What are the four functions of the circulatory system? |
|
Definition
| transportation, nutritive, regulation/communication, protection |
|
|
Term
| What are the components of the circulatory system? |
|
Definition
| Cardiovascular system, lymphatic system, fluid |
|
|
Term
| What are the two components of blood? |
|
Definition
| plasma and formed elements (hematocrit) |
|
|
Term
| What is plasma osmolality? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the most abundant plasma protein? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What maintains the osmotic pressure of plasma? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What helps to maintain blood volume? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is needed to draw water out of the tissue into the capillaries? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What do alpha and beta globulins do? |
|
Definition
| transport lipids and fat soluble vitamins/hormones |
|
|
Term
| What are gamma globulins? |
|
Definition
| antibodies produced by lymphocytes |
|
|
Term
| What group combines with O2 in the lung and transports and releases oxygen into the tissue? |
|
Definition
| iron (binds to hemoglobin) |
|
|
Term
| What removes erythrocytes from the blood? |
|
Definition
| liver, spleen, bone marrow |
|
|
Term
| What is anemia/three types |
|
Definition
| any condition with abnormal hemoglobin concentration. (iron deficient, pernicious, and aplastic) |
|
|
Term
| Pernicious anemia (just talking about everything I know about it) |
|
Definition
| inadequate amount of B12, usually due to destruction of the gastric mucosa/absence of intrinsic factor, |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| due to destruction of bone marrow by benzene, arsenic, etc |
|
|
Term
| What can cause an anemia? |
|
Definition
| lack of bone marrow, lack of b12, breakdown of bone marrow |
|
|
Term
| What causes the sickling of blood cells? |
|
Definition
| The defect in gene for a hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference in DNA between sickle cell and not sickle cell? |
|
Definition
| there is an amino acid valine where there should be a glutamic acid |
|
|
Term
| What is hydroxyurea's role in the body? |
|
Definition
| used to treat sickle cell. It promotes the growth of fetal hemoglobin which does not have the defect. It suppresses production of immune cells by the bone marrow. ''However it also breaks down bone marrow so thats no good." |
|
|
Term
| What are the smallest of the formed elements? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are thrombocytes made from? |
|
Definition
| splintering of megakaryocytes |
|
|
Term
| How long do thrombocytes live? |
|
Definition
| 5-9 days, before being destroyed by the spleen and liver |
|
|
Term
| Platelet activation is what? |
|
Definition
| when circulating platelets are stimulated to aggregate, form a clot and release inflammatory mediators of the arachidonic acid cascade |
|
|
Term
| How are unactivated platelets repelled from each other and the vessel walls? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to strengthen the platelet plug? |
|
Definition
| converting fibrinogen to fibrin |
|
|
Term
| What does the proteolytic cascade do? |
|
Definition
| the conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin |
|
|
Term
| TF: calcium is req'd for blood clotting |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens with extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of blood clotting ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Blood clotting cascade: intrinsic |
|
Definition
| blood is just able to clot |
|
|
Term
| Blood clotting cascade: extrinsic |
|
Definition
| results from damage to a blood vessel |
|
|
Term
| What is the acquired clotting disorder? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What converts fibrinogen to fibrin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| platelet adherence to collagen is impaired (it is not a cascade problem) |
|
|
Term
| In what disorders is the clotting cascade interrputed? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What inhibits platelet COX? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What inhibits utilization of Vit K |
|
Definition
| coumadin (to prevent blood clotting) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| prevents clotting in a test tube by eliminating Ca |
|
|
Term
| what provide the greatest resistance to flow? |
|
Definition
| small arteries and arterioles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases blood vessel size and decreases pressure |
|
|
Term
| What is the basis for varicose veins? |
|
Definition
| over time, blood accumulation in veins causes them to stretch to a point where the one-way valves are no longer efficient. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| formation of new blood vessels from pre-existing vessels. (length) (bad for cancer but good for heart disease because it increases the blood flow) |
|
|
Term
| What is atherosclerosis and its treatments? |
|
Definition
| hardening of the arteries - exercise, diet, statins |
|
|
Term
| What is the use of statins that we talked about? |
|
Definition
| to treat atherosclerosis, it inhibits HMG-CoA reductase, which caralyes the rate limiting step in cholesterol synthesis. Stops cholesterol from being formed |
|
|
Term
| What are the three basic functions of the lymphatic system? |
|
Definition
| transport interstitial fluid back to the blood, transport of fat to the blood, immunological defense |
|
|
Term
| What is the pacemaker potential regulated by? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How does the stuff move through lymphatic vessels? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| smooth muscle initiates movement via pacemaker cells TF |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Atria fail to contract as a single unit. It is not fatal because the driving force of blood movement in this case is the pressure, not the contratcion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ventricles fail to contract. Death beacause ventricles need the push from contraction to get the blood to move |
|
|
Term
| What is a heart murmor usually caused by? Also, what are the specific examples that he talked about? |
|
Definition
| a defective heart valve or septa: rheumatic endocarditis (uncontrolled strep throat) and prophylactic abs (prevents inflammatory responses due to infections that may result from procedure |
|
|
Term
| What is the flow of blood when you have a septal defect? |
|
Definition
| From Left to right (because the pressure on the left side is higher and blood flows from high to low pressure) - will cause pulmonary hypertension and/or edema |
|
|
Term
| An action potential in one myocardial cell is transmitted to all myocardial cells TF |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does the heart do at rest (depolarize/hyperpolarize) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Do cardiomyocytes of the SA node maintain a RMP? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What completes the contraction of heart cells? |
|
Definition
| fast calcium channels opening |
|
|
Term
| How is depolarization propagated through the syncytium in heart cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is repolarization accomplished in the heart cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is an ectopic pacemaker? |
|
Definition
| a pacemaker other than the SA node |
|
|
Term
| What is excitation contraction initiated by? |
|
Definition
| an influx of calcium from the extracellular fluid |
|
|
Term
| What can prevent repolarization of the heart? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How do you end cardiac excitation-contraction coupling in the heart? |
|
Definition
| Ca ATPase of the plasma membrane, moving of Ca into SR, Na/Ca exchanger |
|
|
Term
| What do myocardial cells have that prevents further stimulation. Until when is this utilized? |
|
Definition
| long refractory periods that prevent stimulation until repolarization of the unit has occured |
|
|
Term
| What is the ion movement during cardiac action potentials? |
|
Definition
| Ca slow in, VOC Na, Ca Fast, K out |
|
|
Term
| What are the three types of arrhythmias? |
|
Definition
| Blockage of Na channels, blockage of Ca channels, or blockage of B adrenegeric receptors (blocks catecholamines to stimulate heart) |
|
|
Term
| TF - Waves of EKG are related to action potentials |
|
Definition
| False: they represent potential changes in regions of the heart |
|
|
Term
| What does tachycardia increase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stroke volume x cardiac rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| +/- something that affects the number of heart beats per minute |
|
|
Term
| Is the sympathetic nervous system a positive or negative chronotrope? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Is the parasympathetic NS a +/- chronotrope? |
|
Definition
| negative: the vagus nerve - ACh promotes opening of K channels, hyperpolarizing the pacemaker cells (and we all know that hyperpolarizing is bad) |
|
|
Term
| What are negative chronotropic effects on the pacemaker? |
|
Definition
| they make it longer (that would be parasympatetic NS) opposite is true |
|
|
Term
| What is they physiologic basis for athletic bradycardia? |
|
Definition
| increased stimulation of the vagus nerve, which will secrete more ACh, which will inhibit the heart to beat |
|
|
Term
| What is the cardiac control center and baroreceptors effect on cardiac output |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the baroreceptor reflex? |
|
Definition
| a fall in BP produces an increase in HR |
|
|
Term
| What controls the autonomic effects on the heart? |
|
Definition
| cardiac control center (para and symp.) |
|
|
Term
| What is stroke volume dependent on? 3 |
|
Definition
| EDV, Total peripheral resistance, contractility |
|
|
Term
| What is another name for EDV? |
|
Definition
| preload; makes sense because it is the load BEFORE contraction |
|
|
Term
| What is EDV controlled by: Venous return-> 4 subtypes |
|
Definition
| blood volume, negative intrathoracic pressure, venous pressure, lymphatic return |
|
|
Term
| Increased tissue volume (fluid in interstitial) effect on venous return |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Contractility can be affected by autonomic NS (epinephine/norepin) TF |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is peripheral resistance? |
|
Definition
| resistance of the arteries |
|
|
Term
| What direction does fluid flow in regards to interstitial space and capillaries? |
|
Definition
| into the capillaries, because they exert a higher osmoic pressure so they pull fluid in! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| opposing forces of osmotic pressure and hydrostatic filtration pressure that affect distribution of fluid across the capillary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proper balance between capillary filtration and osmotic uptake of water and by proper lymphatic drainage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When blood volume is too low, it supports the reabsorption of water |
|
|
Term
| When is aldosterone secreted? |
|
Definition
| When the solute concentration is too low. It promotes the absorption of Na and water. (it has the same effect of ADH (increase plasma volume) but does not dilute the urine) |
|
|
Term
| When is the renin-angiotensin system activated? |
|
Definition
| When the blood flow and pressure in the kidneys is too low (salt deprivation, low blood volume, and low blood pressure |
|
|
Term
| What is stimulated by the release of angiotensin 2? |
|
Definition
| aldosterone to increase salt and water retention |
|
|
Term
| What is the end goal of renin-angiotensin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| As a response to a rise in blood volume: Water and salt excretion: it promotes vasodilation |
|
|
Term
| Too low blood plasma, what will be secreted? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Too high blood volume: get rid of fluid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What three points do we need to know about resistance to blood flow? |
|
Definition
- fluid flows from higher pressure to lower pressure
- the longer the tube in which fluid flows, and the smaller the tube, the greater the resistance and teh harder it si to move fluid ( greater pressure it required) Viscosity also increases
- Resistance in our blood vessels correlates to total peripheral resistance and mean arterial pressure |
|
|
Term
| How is a change in mean arterial pressure done? |
|
Definition
| prevented by an increase in cardiac output and vasoconstriction in other areas |
|
|
Term
| What are extrinsic responses to blood flow? |
|
Definition
| controlled by the autonomic/endocrine systems - first to respomd |
|
|
Term
| What are intrinsic regulation of blood flow? |
|
Definition
| control by metabolic factors |
|
|
Term
| What are the endothelium derived relaxing factors that aid in relaxation of muscles |
|
Definition
| NO, bradykinin, protacyclin, PGI2 |
|
|
Term
| What are atrial stretch receptors activated by? |
|
Definition
| an increase in venous return |
|
|
Term
| What are the effects of ASR being activated? |
|
Definition
| sympathetic nerve activity to increase HR, inhibit ADH (release causing a decrease in BV), increase ANF secretion |
|
|
Term
| What are the two types of hypertension? |
|
Definition
| Primary/Essential (no distinct cause, most falls into this category) and Secondary (secondary to a known disease) |
|
|
Term
| Why is increased mean arterial pressure a bad thing |
|
Definition
| it makes it harder for the LV to push blood into the system |
|
|
