Term
| depiction of degrading glycogen to release glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| degrades glycogen into glucose |
|
|
Term
| difference between muscle glycogen and liver glycogen |
|
Definition
| they are 2 isozymes (kinda 2 forms of the same enzyme), 90% identical on the amino acid level |
|
|
Term
| where glycogen phosphorylase can cleave glycogen |
|
Definition
| at 1,4-linkages up to 4 residues away from 1,6-linkages |
|
|
Term
| where branches occur in glycogen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of glycogen phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transfers 3 glycosyl residues onto one of the branches |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of transerase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cleaves remaining glucose (free sugar, hexokinase phosphorylates) |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of α-1,6-Glucosidase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the entire degradation of glycogen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| converts glucose 1-P into a usable form, glucose 6-P |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of phosphoglucomutase |
|
Definition
[image]
note that the phosphate ends up on a different residue |
|
|
Term
| what glycogen stored in liver is used for |
|
Definition
| to deliver glucose elsewhere (i.e., maintaining blood glucose levels) |
|
|
Term
| what glycogen stored in muscle is used for |
|
Definition
| provides glucose for its own energy demands |
|
|
Term
| does glucose 1-P enter glycolysis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are phosphorylated forms of glucose exported? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| catalyzes the dephosphorylation of glucose 6-P into glucose and Pi
glucose 6-P + water --> glucose + PPi |
|
|
Term
| where is glucose-6-phosphatase expressed? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the general regulation of phosphorylase (might wanna draw this) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the more active form of glycogen phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the less active form of glycogen phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how phosphorylase gets activated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| activity of phosphorylase is modulated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phosphorylates phosphorylase |
|
|
Term
| how phosphorylase is deactivated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some molecules that can bind to phosphorylase to stabilize the R or T states |
|
Definition
-ATP
-AMP
-glucose 6-P
-glucose |
|
|
Term
| hormones in muscle that affect phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how phosphorylation is stimulated in muscle |
|
Definition
| Hormones: epinephrine, adrenaline (fear/excitement), increase phosphorylation (a state) by stimulating phosphorylase kinase.
Muscle contraction: Ca2+ release, increase phosphorylation (a state) by stimulating phosphorylase kinase. |
|
|
Term
| how muscle contraction stimulates phosphorylation in muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Allosteric effectors that stabilize phosphorylase b, T state in muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Allosteric effector that stabilizes phosphorylase b, R state in muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| form of phosphorylase that predominates in muscle |
|
Definition
DBT
Dephosphorylated
B form
T state |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how allosteric affectors regulate muscle phorphorylase b (less active) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what insulin does for glycogen |
|
Definition
| signals fed state, high blood glucose, and need to synthesize glucagon |
|
|
Term
| what insulin does for phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what glucagon does for glycogen |
|
Definition
| signals starved state, low blood glucose, and need to degrade glucagon |
|
|
Term
| what glucagon does for phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when phosphorylase kinase is active |
|
Definition
| when Phosphorylated by Protein Kinase A, glucagon signal, cAMP |
|
|
Term
| when phosphorylase phosphatase PP1 is inactive |
|
Definition
| when bound to phosphorylase, glucose releases and activates |
|
|
Term
| allosteric affectors for phosphorylase in liver |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how glucose regulates phosphorylase |
|
Definition
- Binds to PP1/phosphorylase, PP1 released from phosphorylase, (released PP1 more active, dephosphorylates phosphorylase)
- Binds to phosphorylase a, stabilizes T state |
|
|
Term
| form of phosphorylase that predominates in the liver |
|
Definition
PAR
Phosphorylated
a form
Relaxed state |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how phosphorylase a is regulated in the liver |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the overall regulation of phosphorylase kinase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the signal transduction cascacde to activate phosphorylase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what epinephrine signals to the muscle |
|
Definition
| demand for muscle contraction |
|
|
Term
| equation for glycogen synthesis |
|
Definition
| glycogenn + UDP-glucose --> glycogenn+1 + UDP |
|
|
Term
| equation for glycogen degradation |
|
Definition
| glycogenn+1 + Pi --> glycogenn + glucose 1-phosphate |
|
|
Term
| the product of glycogen degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how glucose 1-P is activated |
|
Definition
| by coupling with UTP, which releases PPi |
|
|
Term
| UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase |
|
Definition
| catalyzes the activation of glucose 1-P by coupling to UTP |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the activation of glucose 1-P by coupling to UTP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of synthesis of 1,4 linkages in glycogen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the priming enzyme for glycogen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cross section of glycogen showing glycogenin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transfers glucose from UDP to growing glycogen chain using 1,4-linkage |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| breaks 1,4-linkage after > 4 units and creates 1,6-linkage |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the creation of 1,6 linkages in glycogen to create branching |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| advantage of branching in glycogen |
|
Definition
| gives you more sites to degrade from |
|
|
Term
| why would it be harder to store proteins than glycogen? |
|
Definition
| because amino acids are more reactive |
|
|
Term
| net rxn of glycogen synthesis |
|
Definition
| glucose + 2 ATP + glycogenn + H2O --> glycogenn+1 + ADP + 2 Pi |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| binds to it and stabilizes R state |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the Cori cycle (might wanna draw this) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the body recovers lactic acid into glucose |
|
Definition
the Cori cycle
lactate enters liver to participate in gng |
|
|
Term
| what causes the burning sensation in muscles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of reciprocal regulation of glycogen during exercise or fasting |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the regulated step in glycogen synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 2 kinases that can phosphorylate glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
-PKA
-glycogen synthase kinase |
|
|
Term
| What removes the phosphoryl groups from phosphorylase and glycogen synthase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what PP1 does to phosphorylase |
|
Definition
| dephosphorylates it a-->b to lower its activity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dephosphorylates it to lower its activity |
|
|
Term
| what PP1 does to glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
| dephosphorylates it b-->a to activate it |
|
|
Term
| the more active form of glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
| the dephosphorylated a form |
|
|
Term
| the less active form of glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
| the phosphorylated b form |
|
|
Term
| depiction of insulin regulation in liver |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| insulin receptor substrates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how insulin stimulates PP1 activity |
|
Definition
| An insulin sensitive protein kinase also phosphorylates a subunit of PP1, increasing the activity of PP1. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| glycogen synthase is allosterically activated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what glucose 6-P does to glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
| allosterically activates it |
|
|
Term
| PP1 is bound to ______ – this keeps PP1 from ______ |
|
Definition
liver phosphorylase a
dephosphorylating phosphorylase |
|
|
Term
| is phosphorylase more or less active after eating pasta? |
|
Definition
| less active because of all that glucose from the pasts |
|
|
Term
| is phosphorylase phosphorylated or dephosphorylated after eating pasta? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is PP1 more or less active after eating pasta? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how PP1 allows for "crosstalk" between phosphorylase and glycogen synthase (draw this) |
|
Definition
[image]
it seems excess glucose cleaves the PP1 from phosphorylase so PP1 can dephosphorylase glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| activates glycogen phosphorylase and deactivates glycogen synthase, both by phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| depiction of regulation of glycogen synthesis after a meal or at rest (draw this) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when a lot of glycogen synthesis occurs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of liver glycogen metabolism |
|
Definition
| maintains blood glucose level |
|
|
Term
| normal range of blood glucose concentration |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one way to tell if someone's diabetic |
|
Definition
| the whopping amount of glucose they give you stays high |
|
|
Term
| depiction of glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthase activity in response to added glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what glucose does to glycogen phosphorylase a |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| insulin-sensitive protein kinase |
|
|
Term
| how activation of PP1 by insulin sensitive protein kinase leads to less phosphorylase activity |
|
Definition
| because less of it gets activated |
|
|
Term
| what PP1 does to phosphorylase |
|
Definition
| deactivates it from a to b by dephosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| what PP1 does to glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
| activates it from b to a by dephosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| what can activate glycogen synthase other than PP1? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which stays more constant throughout the day? glucose or A1c? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A1c is an indication of... |
|
Definition
| the amount of glucose that becomes associated with hemoglobin; glycated with hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
| where non-enzymatic glycosylation takes place |
|
Definition
| in all proteins with a free-reacting lysine or valine in the presence of glucose |
|
|
Term
| what part of hemoglobin reacts with glucose? |
|
Definition
| the amino terminus of the beta chain |
|
|
Term
| why glycosylated hemoglobin is a widely used reporter for blood glucose levels |
|
Definition
| because red blood cells last 2-3 months and replenished continuously |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stuck in a glucose insensitive state
the body always thinks it's starved of glucose |
|
|
Term
| description of type 1 diabetes |
|
Definition
| autoimmune disease resulting in destruction of insulin producing cells. |
|
|
Term
| description of type 2 diabetes |
|
Definition
| Insulin-resistance, insulin is usually made at normal levels but is not utilized properly, and glycogen synthesis is 50% lower. |
|
|
Term
| physiological response to diabetes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the body can't do when it has diabetes |
|
Definition
| can't convert glucose to glycogen |
|
|
Term
| what happens to excess glucose when you have diabetes? |
|
Definition
| that excess glucose gets incorporated into other pathways |
|
|
Term
| some problems that can be caused by excess glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| About ______ of the US population has Type 2 diabetes. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| About 80% of people with Type 2 diabetes are ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one possible treatment for type 2 diabetes |
|
Definition
| increasing production of glucose transporters to get more glucose out of the bloodstream |
|
|
Term
| to activate glycogen synthesis, you wanna deactivate... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| increasing activity of ______ should create more active form of glycogen synthase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 things that activate PP1 |
|
Definition
-glycogen phosphorylase a
-insulin-sensitive protein kinase |
|
|
Term
| what releases PP1 from glycogen phosphorylase a? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the key enzyme when there's a need to synthesize glycogen |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hydrolysis of _____ drives the formation of UDP-glucose used in glycogen synthesis. |
|
Definition
| P-Pi
this is true because of Le Chatlier's principle |
|
|
Term
| The core of glycogen contains ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycogen synthase is converted into more active form by the enzyme _______ . |
|
Definition
PP1
more active when dephosphorylated |
|
|
Term
| Insulin stimulates glycogen synthase activity and decreases ______ activity. |
|
Definition
phosphorylase a
this is because phosphorylase degrades glycogen and insulin signals making glycogen |
|
|
Term
| Phosphorylation has the __________ affect on the enzymatic activities of glycogen phosphorylase and glycogen synthase. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| During fasting, _____ acts along with glycogen synthase kinase to phosphorylase glycogen synthase, ____ glycogen synthase activity. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell that stores lipids; fat cell |
|
|
Term
| depiction of an adipocyte |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| general pathway of triacylglycerol metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| metabolism of triacylglycerol in the fat cell is stimulated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some lipoprotein complexes |
|
Definition
-HDL
-LDL
-VLDL
-serum albumin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| not really, but has cholesterol in it |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| triggers inflammatory response in vessels, leading to vessel sclerosis |
|
|
Term
| triacylglycerol can be converted into... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what converts triacylglycerol into glycerol or fatty acids? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pathways that glycerol that enters liver cells can get incorporated into |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pathways that fatty acids that enter cells outside the liver can get incorporated into |
|
Definition
| fatty acid oxidation, leading to citric acid cycle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| converts triacylglycerol into glycerol and fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| structure of triacylglyceride |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of triacylglyceride being converted into fatty acids and glycerol |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Triacylglycerol is stored in... |
|
Definition
| adipocytes as lipid droplets |
|
|
Term
| how epinephrine and glucagon signal for energy |
|
Definition
| by acting through 7TM receptors, stimulate lipid breakdown or lipolysis. |
|
|
Term
| depiction of pathway by which a hormone signals for triacylglycerol degradation (diagram this into something that makes better sense) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hormones that can signal for triacylglycerol degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Glycerol released during lipolysis is absorbed by the liver or other cells for use in... |
|
Definition
| glycolysis or gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| depiction of glycerol metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fatty acids are linked to ______ before they are oxidized |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the first stage of fatty acid oxidation is basically... |
|
Definition
| conversion of fatty acid to acyl CoA |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| catalyzes the conversion of fatty acid to acyl CoA |
|
|
Term
| where the first stage of fatty acid degradation occurs |
|
Definition
| on outer mitochondrial membrane |
|
|
Term
| depiction of stage 1 of fatty acid degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of an acyl adenylate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of an acyl group |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of stage 2 of fatty acid degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how fatty acids, in the form of acyl, cross the inner mitochondrial membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why buying cartinine is nuts |
|
Definition
| because we can make it and there's lots of food we eat that contains it |
|
|
Term
| depiction of stage 3 of fatty acid degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the rxn for one round of β-oxidation of a fatty acid |
|
Definition
| Cn-acyl CoA + FAD + NAD+ + H2O + CoA --> Cn-2-acyl CoA + FADH2 + NADH + acetyl CoA + H+ |
|
|
Term
| the complete rxn for palmitoyl CoA |
|
Definition
| palmitoyl CoA + 7 FAD + 7 NAD+ + 7 H2O + 7 CoA --> 7 FADH2 + 7 NADH + 8 acetyl CoA + 7 H+ |
|
|
Term
| How much ATP is generated from C16 palmitoyl-CoA? |
|
Definition
net 106
produces 108 at the expense of 2 |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how ketone bodies are formed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when formation of ketone bodies occurs |
|
Definition
| basically happens when acetyl CoA goes wild |
|
|
Term
| the 2 ketone bodies that can be produced |
|
Definition
-acetone
-D-3-hydroxybutyrate |
|
|
Term
| when production of acetone occurs |
|
Definition
| basically happens as a result of running out of citric acid cycle intermediates |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
2-30% lost in breath and urine.
during starvation, some converted to pyruvate, enters gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how D-3-hydroxybutyrate can be used for energy |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some tissues that can use ketone bodies as fuel |
|
Definition
-liver
-heart
-renal cortex
-brain |
|
|
Term
| choice of fuel vs. days of starvation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the first thing that goes during starvation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of Diabetic ketosis (ketoacidosis) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-physiology thinks you have no glucose in your bloodstream
-this can happen when you produce no insulin
-this results in lots of acetone |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the pathways that contribute to fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when you make fatty acids, you have big demand for... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rule of thumb: NADPH in biosynth and NADH in catabolism |
|
|
Term
| stage 1 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
| transfer citrate from the mitochondria to the cytoplasm, cleaved to form acetyl CoA and OAA (ATP citrate lyase) |
|
|
Term
| stage 2 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
activation of acetyl CoA + carbonate to form malonyl CoA
Key regulatory and committed step (acetyl CoA carboxylase) |
|
|
Term
| stage 3 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
repetitive addition and reduction of two carbon units to synthesize fatty acids.
Synthesis occurs on an acyl carrier protein (ACP), which acts as a molecular scaffold (can also think of it as a tag). |
|
|
Term
| which occurs in fatty acid synthesis? reduction or oxidation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which occurs in fatty acid synthesis? hydration or dehydration? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which occurs in fatty acid degradation? reduction or oxidation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which occurs in fatty acid degradation? hydration or dehydration? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of stage 1 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| catalyzes synthesis of malonyl CoA |
|
|
Term
| depiction of stage 2 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| catalyzes the formation of fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| where fatty acid synthesis occurs |
|
Definition
| on the acyl carrier protein (ACP), a polypeptide linked to CoA |
|
|
Term
| depiction of stage 3 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of round 1 of stage 3 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of round 2 of stage 3 of fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the activities of fatty acid synthase |
|
Definition
-condensation
-reduction
-dehydration
-reduction |
|
|
Term
| fatty acid synthesis keeps running until... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| regulators of acetyl CoA carboxylase |
|
Definition
-citrate
-malonyl CoA
-fatty acid (in this case, palmitoyl CoA) |
|
|
Term
| when acetyl CoA carboxylase is inhibited |
|
Definition
| when phosphorylated by AMP-dependent protein kinase (AMPK) |
|
|
Term
| how acetyl CoA carboxylase gets activated |
|
Definition
| gets dephosphorylated by protein phospahatase 2A (PP2A) |
|
|
Term
| the hub of fatty acid biosynthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how citrate activates carboxylase |
|
Definition
| by facilitating the formation of active polymers of the enzyme |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| phosphofructokinase, lowers flux through glycolysis |
|
|
Term
| major end product of fatty acid biosynthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how palmitoyl CoA inhibits carboxylase |
|
Definition
| by causing depolymerization of the enzyme polymers |
|
|
Term
| how palmitoyl CoA affects citrate |
|
Definition
| Inhibits export of citrate from mitochondria |
|
|
Term
| Malonyl CoA is the product of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what malonyl CoA does to carnitine acyl transferase 1 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of Regulation by AMPK and PP2A |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| this is basically the fuel gage for fatty acid metabolism |
|
Definition
| AMP-activated protein kinase |
|
|
Term
| what insulin signals in fatty acid metabolism |
|
Definition
| fed state, basically signaling to synthesize fatty acids |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the involvement of citrate in fatty acid metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of palmitoyl CoA inhibiting fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how carboxylase inhibits fatty acid degradation |
|
Definition
| it's product, malonyl CoA, prevents the entry of fatty acid acyl CoA into mitochondria by inhibiting carnitine acyl transferase I |
|
|
Term
| depiction of malonyl CoA (product of carboxylase) inhibiting fatty acid degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| general depiction of the synthesis of storage lipids and cholesterol |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of a cell membrane with cholesterol in it |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of a cholesterol molecule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| phosphatidate is a precursor to... |
|
Definition
-storage lipids
-many membrane lipids |
|
|
Term
| Phosphatidate is formed by... |
|
Definition
| the addition of two fatty acids to glycerol 3-phosphate in the liver. |
|
|
Term
| where phosphatidate formation occurs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of phosphatidate formation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of phosphatidate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what phosphatidate can be used for |
|
Definition
| can be used to make lipids, such as phospholipids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synthesizes triacylglycerol from phosphatidate and acyl CoA. |
|
|
Term
| the primary fuel storage in humans |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of metabolism of phosphatidate into phospholipids and triacylglycerols |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of phospholipid synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of triacylglycerol synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most of the fat droplet in adipocytes is... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| something cholesterol helps with in the membrane |
|
Definition
| helps form lipid rafts, which help with lots of functions in the membrane |
|
|
Term
| why you should never put a baby on a low cholesterol diet |
|
Definition
| because they need cholesterol to form lipid rafts |
|
|
Term
| depiction of cholesterol synthesis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| steroid hormones are derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some steroid hormones derived from cholesterol |
|
Definition
-androgens
-glucocorticoids |
|
|
Term
| cortisol is derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| drugs used to lower cholesterol |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how statins lower cholesterol |
|
Definition
| inhibit HMG CoA reductase |
|
|
Term
| The rate of synthesis of HMG CoA reductase mRNA is controlled by... |
|
Definition
| the sterol regulatory element binding protein (SREBP). Too little cholesterol. |
|
|
Term
| The rate of translation of the reductase mRNA is controlled by... |
|
Definition
| metabolites of mevalonate and dietary cholesterol (molecular mechanism not understood) |
|
|
Term
| Increases in cholesterol concentration result in... |
|
Definition
| proteolytic degradation of the reductase. |
|
|
Term
| how HMG CoA reductase is inactivated |
|
Definition
| Phosphorylation of the reductase by AMP-dependent protein kinase inactivates the enzyme. |
|
|
Term
| depiction of transcription control |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of Degradation of HMG CoA reductase in response to cholesterol |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| role of ubiquitin in the Degradation of HMG CoA reductase in response to cholesterol |
|
Definition
| acts as a tag for protein degradation |
|
|
Term
| the role of Degradation of HMG CoA reductase in response to cholesterol |
|
Definition
this is basically the protein turnover machine in cells
triggered by changes in cholesterol |
|
|
Term
| depiction of Phosphorylation of HMG-CoA reductase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ethanol metabolism in liver leads to excess... |
|
Definition
NADH and fatty acids
(fatty liver) |
|
|
Term
| why it's not good to have acetylaldehyde in the system |
|
Definition
| because it is highly reactive and messes with lots of things; can even mess with DNA |
|
|
Term
| rxns that occur during ethanol metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of acetyl CoA synthase in fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
| produces acetyl-CoA from the acetate derived from ethanol (think of it as a very very short fatty acid!) |
|
|
Term
| how acetyl-CoA can be used for fatty acid synthesis |
|
Definition
| by converting to malonyl-CoA (acetyl-CoA carboxylase) after substituting CoA with ACP (acetyl transacylase). |
|
|
Term
| Consequences of acetaldehyde (very reactive) |
|
Definition
- Damages DNA, leads to esophageal cancer
- Outcomes depend on personal genetics |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the flowchart of what happens as a result of too much acetaldehyde |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what acetaldehyde does to DNA |
|
Definition
| causes DNA strands to crosslink |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the different fates of pyruvate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Excess NADH/acetate inhibits... |
|
Definition
inhibits citric acid cycle
NADH inhibits α KG dehydrogenase and isocitrate dehydrogenase |
|
|
Term
| Excess NADH/acetate stimulates... |
|
Definition
-lactic acidosis; excess NADH pushes lactate dehydrogenase rxn towards lactate
-fatty acid synthesis due to excess acetyl-CoA; leads to fatty liver
-ketone body formation as a result of more acetyl-CoA; this leads to more acidosis |
|
|
Term
| why some people are more vulnerable to alcohol induced cancer |
|
Definition
| because they have an allele that increases acetaldehyde production when drinking alcohol |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the Molecular basis of the ALDH2*E487K variant |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do we not store amino acids or proteins? |
|
Definition
| amino acids are more diverse and therefore proteins are more complex and less stable |
|
|
Term
| What happens to the ammonia produced when amino acids are used as fuel? |
|
Definition
| gets converted to urea, because it's toxic |
|
|
Term
| the 1st step in the degradation of amino acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how N gets removed from amino acids |
|
Definition
| alpha amino groups are converted into ammonium ions by the oxidative deanimation of glutamate
Amino groups from amino acids are funneled to glutamate, which is deaminated to form NH4+. |
|
|
Term
| depiction of N being removed from amino acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Aminotransferases (transaminases) |
|
Definition
| transfer amino groups from an amino acid to α-ketoglutarate to generate glutamate. |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of aminotransferases (transaminases) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a mitochondrial enzyme, releases NH4+ in the oxidative deamination of glutamate |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of glutamate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why you gotta regulate how much glutamate is produced |
|
Definition
| because glutamate is also a neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
| allosteric regulators of glutamate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
- GTP and ATP Inhibit
- GDP and ADP Activate |
|
|
Term
| what GTP and ATP do to glutamate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what GDP and ADP do to glutamate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the major flow of ammonia |
|
Definition
[image]
note that it gives you ONE of the N's in urea |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how NH4+ is processed in the liver |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how muscle processes NH4+ |
|
Definition
- Lacks urea cycle
- Transaminations to Alanine, which is exported to the liver to be converted to glutamate |
|
|
Term
| do muscle cells have a urea cycle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do muscle cells get around not having a urea cycle? |
|
Definition
| Transaminations to Alanine, which is exported to the liver to be converted to glutamate |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the urea cycle (draw this) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| understand these things about pathways: |
|
Definition
1: function
2: energetics
3: regulation
4: compartmentalized?
5: pathway connections |
|
|
Term
| the types of molecules citrulline and ornithine are |
|
Definition
| amino acids, but they're never used to make proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| to get rid of ammonia by producing urea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| urea cycle consumes energy (note that it consumes ATP) |
|
|
Term
| how is the urea cycle compartmentalized? |
|
Definition
| mitochondria and cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
| pathway connection from urea cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Carbamoyl phosphate synthase |
|
Definition
| Couples ammonia to bicarbonate |
|
|
Term
| allosteric activator of Carbamoyl phosphate synthase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how arginine affects urea cycle |
|
Definition
| high concentration of arginine activates the Urea cycle |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of Carbamoyl phosphate synthase (how Carbamoyl phosphate is synthesized) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Ornithine transcarbamoylase |
|
Definition
| forms citrulline from ornithine and carbamoyl phosphate |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of Ornithine transcarbamoylase (how ornithine is converted to citrulline) |
|
Definition
[image]
the pink is what becomes urea |
|
|
Term
| how citrulline and ornithine are thansported accross the mitochondrial membrane |
|
Definition
| co-transport of ornithine (in) and citrulline (out) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| condenses citrulline and aspartate |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of Arginosuccinate synthase (how arginosuccinate is synthesized) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
degrades arginosuccinate into arginine and fumarate
fumarate enters gng |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of Argininosuccinase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| catalyzes hydrolysis of arginine into ornithine and urea |
|
|
Term
| the rxn arginase is involved in |
|
Definition
| Arginine + water --> ornithine + UREA |
|
|
Term
| where do the N's in urea come from? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the urea cycle is linked to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the urea cycle is linked to gng |
|
Definition
| CO2 + NH4+ + 3 ATP + aspartate + 2 H2O --> urea + 2 ADP + 2 Pi + AMP + PPi + fumarate
the fumarate can enter gng |
|
|
Term
| depiction of what links gng and the urea cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the fates of C backbones of amino acids in metabolism |
|
Definition
[image]
the yellow are ketogenic and the pink are glucogenic |
|
|
Term
| ______ are required for degradation of aromatic amino acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| aromatic amino acids require ______ for degradation |
|
Definition
| monooxygenases (mixed-function oxygenases) |
|
|
Term
| what monooxygenases use as substrates |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use O2 as a substrate and incorporate one O into theproduct and the other into water |
|
|
Term
| phenylalanine hydroxylase |
|
Definition
| monooxygenase that converts phenylalanine into tyrosine with the assistance of the cofactor tetrahydrobiopterin |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the function of phenylalanine hydroxylase (conversion of phenylalanine to tyrosine) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| something deficient in Phenylketonuria (PKU) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the genetics details of the PKU allele |
|
Definition
- Recessive
- about 1/60 carriers
- about 1/15,000 live births |
|
|
Term
| PKU causes mental retardation. the mechanism is unknown, but what's one possibility? |
|
Definition
| if the phenylalanine c'tration gets too high, it causes neurological damage by preventing uptake of some amino acids into the brain |
|
|
Term
| depiction of phenylalanine and tyrosine degradation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why phenylalanine and tyrosine have glucogenic character as well as ketogenic character |
|
Definition
| because degradation produces acetone and fumarate; the fumarate can enter gng pathway |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| missing or deficient phenylalanine hydroxylase |
|
|
Term
| in PKU, some of the excess phenylalanine is converted into... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| urine turns green with FeCl3 |
|
|
Term
| what happene when someone is diagnosed with PKU? |
|
Definition
| put on strict diet to prevent mental retardation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| current hypothesis: excess Phenylalanine blocks a large neutral amino acid transporter at the blood brain barrier called LAT-1 |
|
|
Term
| depiction of conversion of phenylalanine into phenylpyruvate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can we synthesize phenylalanine? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| important characteristic of a PKU patient's diet |
|
Definition
| must avoid too much phenylalanine, but phenylalanine is an essential amino acid, so we must consume some of it |
|
|
Term
| Biosynthetic families of amino acids in bacteria and plants |
|
Definition
[image]
the ones with E are essential for humans |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the synthesis of serine and glycine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why it's bad to have too much homocystein in the system |
|
Definition
oxidizes:
- Blood vessel lining
- Vascular smooth muscle |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the synthesis of homocysteine and cysteine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| something used frequrntly in biosynthetic pathways |
|
Definition
| One carbon donors/acceptors |
|
|
Term
| why S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) is an effective methyl group donor |
|
Definition
| because the positive charge on S gives it higher methyl transfer potential |
|
|
Term
| depiction of synthesis of S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when fasting, why is there an initial surge of N excretion? |
|
Definition
| utilization of dietary protein |
|
|
Term
| Why does nitrogen excretion fall after several weeks of fasting? |
|
Definition
| using fatty acids, and then ketone bodies |
|
|
Term
| why there's an increase in nitrogen secretion when the lipid stores are depleted |
|
Definition
| starts degrading your own proteins; last ditch effort |
|
|
Term
Which of the following compounds serves as an acceptor for amino groups of many
amino acids during catabolism? Glutamine, Asparagine, Alpha-ketoglutarate, or Histidine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deficiency phenylalanine hydroxylase or tetrahydrobiopterin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| buildup of phenylalanine in the body |
|
|
Term
| how PKU causes mental retardation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| two examples of direct transmination between CAC intermediates and amino acids |
|
Definition
alpha-ketoglutarate --> glutamate
oxaloacetate --> aspartate |
|
|
Term
| Can an amino acid be both ketogenic and glucogenic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an unborn baby's neural tube closure requires lots of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Triacylglycerols are stored in _____ in mammals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Feedback inhibition usually occurs at the ______ step in a biosynthetic pathway. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Degradation of ketogenic amino acids gives rise to _______. |
|
Definition
-acetyl CoA
-acetoacetyl CoA |
|
|
Term
| Carnitine is the carrier used to transfer fatty acids into the _______ for degradation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Complete beta oxidation of myristyl-CoA (14:0) yields |
|
Definition
| 7 acetyl CoA + 6 FADH2 + 6 NADH + 6 H+ |
|
|
Term
| Fatty acid synthesis begins with the export of ______ from the mitochondria. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Fatty acid synthesis adds a total of ___ carbon units per cycle after removal of ___ unit(s) as CO2. |
|
Definition
| 2
1
you add 3, but lose 1 as CO2, so the net is 2, 1 |
|
|
Term
| Fatty acid synthesis and degradation occurs using similar intermediates. What allows these pathways to function independently without a creating a futile cycle? |
|
Definition
-Synthesis occurs in the cytoplasm, degradation in the mitochondria.
-Acyl-carnitine used for degradation.
-Acyl-ACP used for synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Type 2 diabetes is a condition where insulin is produced but cannot perform its function (insulin resistance), allowing blood glucose levels to remain above normal. Research is underway to develop drugs for glycogen phosphorylase as a possible treatment. Provide a rationale for this strategy. |
|
Definition
| A drug that inhibits phosphorylase should reduce the level of glucose. |
|
|
Term
| Excessive alcohol consumption results in abnormally high levels of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The level of HMG-CoA reductase is regulated by... |
|
Definition
-protein degradation mediated by the proteasome.
-transcription of the HMG-CoA reductase gene in response to low levels of sterols.
-the level of protein phosphorylation modulated through signaling pathways. |
|
|
Term
| Increasing the level of insulin secretion should stimulate ____. |
|
Definition
| cholesterol and glycogen synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Under what physiological condition would acetyl CoA carboxylase and HMG CoA reductase be phosphorylated by AMP-activated protein kinase? |
|
Definition
A starved state should increase phosphorylation of these enzymes, lowering their activity.
under starved state, you wanna degrade, not synthesize, stuff |
|
|
Term
| What role does acetyl CoA carboxylase play in fatty acid degradation? |
|
Definition
| The product of acetyl CoA carboxylase, malonyl-CoA, inhibits acyl carnitine transferase I import of acyl carnitine into the mitochondria where fatty acid degradation occurs |
|
|
Term
| how protein phosphatase 1 (PP1) regulates glycogen synthesis in liver |
|
Definition
-Glucose releases PP1, where it dephosphorylates phosphorylase A to form the less active form phosphorylase B.
-Inactivates phosphorylase kinase by dephosphorylation.
-Activates glycogen synthase by dephosphorylation |
|
|
Term
| The urea cycle removes ____ atoms of nitrogen per cycle |
|
Definition
2
1 coming from ammonium and the other coming from the amino group of aspartate |
|
|
Term
| two pathways that contribute precursors for amino acid synthesis |
|
Definition
-glycolysis
-citric acid cycle |
|
|
Term
| How might increased synthesis of glutamate and aspartate affect energy production in the cell? |
|
Definition
| Loss of oxaloacetate and alpha ketoglutarate would slow the citric acid cycle. |
|
|
Term
| Nitrogen is funneled through _____ prior to entering the urea cycle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Statins lower cholesterol levels because they partially inhibit the committed step in cholesterol biosynthesis catalyzed by ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| common site of regulation in feedback inhibition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of feedback inhibition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which step is usually the committed step? |
|
Definition
| the first step using the first enzyme |
|
|
Term
| what you gotta give bacteria for them to grow |
|
Definition
| the end product of the pathway |
|
|
Term
| 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
| catalyzes the committed step in serine synthesis |
|
|
Term
| The committed step in serine synthesis, catalyzed by 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase, is inhibited by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3-phosphoglycerate is an intermediate of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how binding of serine affects 3-phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase |
|
Definition
| decreases Vmax by conformational changes that alter the active site of the catalytic domain |
|
|
Term
| kinetics graph of serine as an inhibitor (might wanna draw this) |
|
Definition
[image]
this is kinda cooperativity turned on its head to analyze the inhibitor |
|
|
Term
| types of feedback that can occur in branched pathways |
|
Definition
-feedback inhibition (plus) activation
-enzyme multiplicity
-cumulative feedback inhibition |
|
|
Term
| Feedback inhibition (plus) activation |
|
Definition
| If two pathways have an initial common step, one pathway is inhibited by its own product and stimulated by the product of the other pathway. Threonine deaminase illustrates this type of regulation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The committed step is catalyzed by two or more enzymes with differing regulatory properties. For example, three distinct aspartate kinases control the synthesis of threonine, methionine, and lysine in E. coli. |
|
|
Term
| Cumulative feedback inhibition |
|
Definition
| A common step for several pathways is inhibited by each of the various end products. One issue is the number of allosteric sites. The Amino Acid Case is an example of this type of feedback inhibition. |
|
|
Term
| depiction of feedback inhibition and activation in a branched pathway |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one advantage of inhibition and activation by a branched pathway |
|
Definition
| in the end, you want a balance of products |
|
|
Term
| depiction of enzyme multiplicity in a branched pathway |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a microbe that can degrade raw biomass |
|
Definition
| Caldicellulosiruptor bescii,
isolated from a thermal spring in Russia |
|
|
Term
| objective of degrading raw biomass |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| advantage C. Bescii has when it come to the bioethanol production process |
|
Definition
| you heat it up to about 75°C, which frees up some useful carbohydrates and it's a temp the microbe likes |
|
|
Term
| fermentative pathways in C. bescii for hexose sugars |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| strategy in engineering C. bescii for use in bioethanol production |
|
Definition
| Targeted insertion and expression of C. thermocellum adhE in C. bescii |
|
|
Term
| what knocking out the Idh gene in C. bescii does |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| another characteristic that makes C. bescii more suitable for ethanol production |
|
Definition
| C. bescii itself is fairly tolerant to ethanol
tolerant to 300 mM |
|
|
Term
| Amino acid synthesis is generally regulated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| In a linear biosynthetic pathway, what step is usually regulated? What molecule is usually the feedback inhibitor? Why? |
|
Definition
Committed step
end product
saves energy
pathway won't function if committed step is inhibited |
|
|
Term
| If an animal is fed N15-labeled aspartate, name a major compound that will be labeled. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Feeding past a nutritional block resulting from a mutation is an effective way to understand ____ . |
|
Definition
| gene/enzyme relationships |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of triacylglyceride |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of carboxylic acid |
|
Definition
|
|
