Term
|
Definition
| An erupting vent through which molten rock surfaces, or a mountain built from magmatic eruptions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Volcanoes are caused by _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In 79 C.E. _____, in Pompeii, Italy, erupted violently causing earthquakes and fine ash and choking fumes to envelope the town, killing nearly 20,000 people & burying the town. |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| Eruptions can provide highly productive _____ to feed a civilization, _____ a civilization in a matter of minutes, and effect _____. |
|
|
Term
Lava flows
Pyroclastic debris
Volcanic gases |
|
Definition
| The products of volcanic eruptions take three forms. Name them. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molten rock that moves over the ground |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fragments blown out of a volcano |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| vapor and aerosols that exit a volcano |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Flow style depends on _____ – which depends on composition, temperature, gas content, and crystal content. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lava flows with low silica/high Fe and Mg are _____ &_____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lava flows with moderate silica, Fe, Mg are _____&_____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lava flows with high silica/low Fe and Mg are _____,______,&______. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Basaltic (Mafic) lava is very _____, has low _____, and low _____. |
|
|
Term
thin and fluid
rapidly
long |
|
Definition
| Basalt flows are often ______, so they flow ______ and over _____ distances. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ______ reflects the timing of freezing relative to movement. |
|
|
Term
rapid cooling
cooled crust
insulation |
|
Definition
| Lava is able to travel far because _____ of the surface of the lava flow occurs as it emerges to the surface creating a _____, which serves as _____, allowing the hot interior to flow and remain liquid for some distance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the insulated, tunnel-like conduit within a flow, through which lava moves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tubes prevent _____, facilitating flow for miles. Tubes eventually will drain and become empty tunnels forming caves and can even transmit water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a Hawaiian word describing basalt with a glassy, ropy texture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Pahoehoe forms when extremely hot basalt forms a _____ that
is rolled into ropy ridges and furrows with flow. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a Hawaiian word describing basalt that solidifies with a jagged, sharp, angular texture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A’a forms when hot flowing basalt _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| With flow, lava crumbles into shards and fragments – leaving a _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| solidified flows that contract with vertical fractures that are hexagonal in cross section (create hexagonal columns) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Columnar joints typically develop in _____ as flow cools and cracks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rounded blobs of basalt that cooled underwater because underwater, basalt cools instantly and cannot flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The pillow surface is cracked, quenched _____ (rapid freezing/solidification) |
|
|
Term
Lava pressure
mid-ocean ridge |
|
Definition
| _____ ruptures a pillow to form the next blob. This is common on the _____. |
|
|
Term
Higher SiO2
rapidly
mound
slowly |
|
Definition
_____ makes andesitic lavas viscous.
Unlike basalt, they do not flow _____. Instead, they _____ around the vent and flow _____. |
|
|
Term
lumpy
bulbous snout
vent
rubble |
|
Definition
| Andesitic lavas are characterized as a _____ flow with a _____ that remain closest to the _____. The outer crust fractures, creating _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
_____ lava has the highest SiO2 and is the most viscous lava.
It is the _____ and rarely _____. |
|
|
Term
lava dome
violent eruptions |
|
Definition
| Rhyolite lava plugs the vent as a _____, or dome-like mass, which can be blown to smithereens by subsequent ______. |
|
|
Term
vent
column-like spire or spine |
|
Definition
| Sometimes rhyolitic lava freezes while still in the _____, then pushes upward as a _____ (up to 100 m above the vent). |
|
|
Term
viscosity
temperature
composition |
|
Definition
| Characteristics of lava flow depend on the _____, which in turn depends on _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
Balsaltic = flow great distances-Pahoehoe and a’a
Andesitic = moderate silica content-More resistant to flow
Rhyolite = highest silica content-Most resistant to flow-Tends to pile into mounds at the vent |
|
Definition
| Name the 3 types of lava flows and give a short description of each. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| general term for accumulations of fragmented igneous material |
|
|
Term
Pyroclastic debris – lava that freezes flying through air
Pre-existing rock fragments (around volcano vent)
Landslide debris
Mudflows |
|
Definition
| Name the 4 Types of Volcaniclastic Deposits. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Basaltic magma may contain dissolved _____, and as it approaches the surface, it will form _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the volatile bubbles reach the surface, they burst and eject clots and drops of _____ upward to form dramatic fountains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Glass shards and fragmented lava range in _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Basaltic eruptions generate a lot of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pea to plum-sized material |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| apple to refrigerator-sized basaltic debris |
|
|
Term
| Pele’s Hair (after the Hawaiian goddess of volcanoes) |
|
Definition
| strands of glass created by flying lava droplets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| streamlined fragments of ejected lava |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ and _____ magmas erupt explosively. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Intermediate and felsic lavas are _____ viscous than basaltic magma (from SiO2) and contains more _____. It also produces large quantities of _____ (tiny shards of glass from instantaneous freezing) |
|
|
Term
Pyroclastic flows (also called nuee ardentes)
Mt. Vesuvius |
|
Definition
| an avalanche of hot ash (200– 450°C/ ~390-840°F), pulled down the side of a volcano by gravity. It incinerates everything in its path, immediately killing everything. Give Example. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| unconsolidated deposits of pyroclastic grains, regardless of size |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lithified ash, or ash mixed with lapilli (formed by burying and transforming into rock) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| accumulations of ash that fell like snow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sheet of tuff that is deposited while hot; hot pyroclastic flow material; Fuses together while cooling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The _____ of volcanic explosions can fragment and disperse preexisting volcanic rock that has built up around the volcano. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chunks of preexisting rock fragments by eruption; Blown out of a volcanic vent, and piled up nearby. Create unstable slopes that easily fail |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Volcanic debris flows result from rain or with the mixing of melting snow and tephra (addition of _____ H2O). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wet slurry/mixture of ash, coarser debris, and water. It is very Deadly because they Move rapidly, up to 50 km/hr and Have consistency of wet cement. A distinct hazard to people living in volcanic valleys. |
|
|
Term
Water (H2O)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) |
|
Definition
| Most magmas contain dissolved gases such as _____, which is the most abundant gas, _____, which is second in abundance, and _____, which produces a rotten egg smell. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ controls gas content. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lavas with more_____ contain a greater proportion of gas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ magmas tend to consist of a smaller percentage of volatiles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gases are expelled as magma rises due to _____. |
|
|
Term
| aerosol sulfuric acid (H2S) |
|
Definition
| SO2 reacts with H2O to form _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Style of gas escape controls _____. |
|
|
Term
Low viscosity (basalt)
High viscosity (rhyolite) |
|
Definition
_____– Easy escape; mellow eruption
_____ – difficult escape; violent eruption |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The last bubbles to form will freeze into the lava and become holes called _____. |
|
|
Term
lava– felsic and mafic
pyroclastic debris– range in size from ash shards to large blocks
gas– volume relative to magma composition |
|
Definition
| Volcanoes erupt _____, _____, and _____. Give a brief explanation of each. |
|
|
Term
Magma chamber
Fissures and vents
Craters
Calderas
Distinctive profiles |
|
Definition
| Volcanoes have characteristic features. Name them. |
|
|
Term
Shield volcanoes
Cinder cones
Stratovolcanoes |
|
Definition
| Name the 3 distinctive profiles of volcanoes. |
|
|
Term
Magma Chamber
magma
inflate
deflate |
|
Definition
| located in the upper crust of a volcano, usually an open cavity or area of highly fractured rock. May contain a large quantity of _____, and may ______ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Some magma cools in the magma chamber to form _____.
Some magma rises to the surface to form a _____. |
|
|
Term
vertical pipe
cracks
fissures |
|
Definition
| When magma rises to the surface via a conduit, it can be in the shape of a _____, or it can be through ______, called _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fissure eruption may display “_____” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fissures evolve into _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bowl-shaped depression atop a volcano that can be up to 500 m across & 200 m deep |
|
|
Term
material accumulates around the summit vent
the summit collapses into the drained conduit |
|
Definition
| Craters develop during eruption as __________________ or just after eruption as ____________________. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located within the summer crater |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| located along the side of a volcano |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| big circular depression resulting from a major eruption and the subsequent collapse of the center of a volcano into the large, drained magma chamber below |
|
|
Term
steep
flat
massive eruptions (sometimes blowing apart nearly the entire volcano) |
|
Definition
Calderas are 1-10 km across, several
hundred meters deep, have _____ sidewalls and _____ floors, form from ____________________. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Name an example of a caldera in the U.S. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broad, slighly domed-shaped (like an inverted shield) |
|
|
Term
lateral
low-viscosity
low
large |
|
Definition
| Shield volcanoes are made by _____ flow of ______ basaltic lava and have a _____ slope and covers a _____ geographic area. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| What is an example of a shield volcano in the U.S.? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
smallest
ejected lapilli-sized fragments
vent
repose
symmetrical |
|
Definition
| Cinder cones are the _____ type of volcano, built of ________________ piled up at a _____ . Its slopes are at the angle of _____. They are often _____ with a deep summit crater. |
|
|
Term
Stratovolcanoes (composite volcanoes)
symmetric
landslides |
|
Definition
| Large, cone-shaped volcano composed of alternating layers of lava and tephra. Often _____; can be odd shapes due to _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Give an example of a stratovolcano. |
|
|
Term
Effusive eruptions = produce lava flows
Explosive eruptions = blow up |
|
Definition
| Name & give a description of the two dominant eruption styles. |
|
|
Term
vents
Lava lakes
lava fountains
Low-viscosity basaltic
shield |
|
Definition
| In effusive eruptions, lava flows stream away from _____. _____ can form around vent. It can produce huge _____. _____________ lava flow, which yields _____ volcanoes |
|
|
Term
pyroclastic flows
gas pressure
explosively |
|
Definition
| Explosive eruptions produce _____ and they are caused by _____ in the more viscous magma. Pressure is released _____. |
|
|
Term
stratovolcanoes
calderas
tephra
Andesitic
rhyolitic |
|
Definition
Explosive eruptions create _____. May create _____.
Blanket the landscape with _____. _____ & _____ compositions |
|
|
Term
| Viscosity, Gas Pressure, and Environment |
|
Definition
| What controls eruptive style? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Controls the ease of lava flow. |
|
|
Term
Low
flows away
High
builds up |
|
Definition
Basalt – _____ viscosity lava _____ from vent.
Felsic – _____ viscosity lava _____ at the vent. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Greater pressure favors _____ style.
Basalt – Low viscosity _____ gas release.
Felsic – High viscosity _____ gas release. |
|
|
Term
Environment
Subaerial
Submarine |
|
Definition
| The _____ where eruption occurs is important. _____ lava flowing on land cools slower than _____ lava which is quickly quenched. |
|
|
Term
chimney-like conduits
fissures |
|
Definition
| Volcanoes erupt from _____ or _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Basaltic eruptions yield _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fountaining lava yields _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Alternating ash and lava yields _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Eruptive style (effusive or explosive) reflects lava _____. |
|
|
Term
| An earthquake triggered a landslide. Subsequently releasing pressure on the magma. A sudden and violent expansion of gases blasted through the side of the volcanoRock, steam, and ash screamed north at the speed of sound. Flattened a forest and everything in it over an area of 600 square km, killing 61 people. Generated lahars, ash fall. Destroyed timber (valued at several 100 million dollars) |
|
Definition
| What happened to Mt. St. Helens on May 18, 1980 at 8:32 a.m.? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ is a dominant control on volcanism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most lava erupts along the _____. |
|
|
Term
70%
fissures quenches
continuously active
Pillow mounds |
|
Definition
MOR-generated oceanic crust covers _____ of Earth.
Basalt eruptions from _____ as pillow (lava) and forms volcanoes. MORs are not _____; turns on/off on scales of tens-hundreds of years. _____ are pulled apart with plate motion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most subaerial volcanoes form at _____ boundaries. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ from _____ plate initiates melting to produce magma. They release, rise, produce magma, rise, erupt. |
|
|
Term
Arc volcanoes
Volcanic island arcs
Continental volcanic arcs |
|
Definition
| _____ develop on the overriding plate, forming ___ from oceanic crust and _____ from continental crust. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Subduction zones border >60% of the Pacific Ocean and form the _____, an over 20,000 km-long chain of volcanoes. |
|
|
Term
Continental Rifts
mantle (mafic magmas)
crust (felsic magmas) |
|
Definition
| _____ yield an array of volcano types due to magma that feeds these types of volcanoes coming from partial melting of the _____ and partial melting of the _____. |
|
|
Term
Basaltic fissure eruptions – curtains of lava
fountain up
Linear chain of cinder cones
Explosive rhyolitic volcanoes
Stratovolcanoes |
|
Definition
| Name the volcano types at continental rifts. |
|
|
Term
East African Rift
Basin and Range Province
Mid-continent Rift |
|
Definition
| Locations of continental rifts are the _____, _____. & _____. |
|
|
Term
| Plumes under oceanic plates |
|
Definition
| What makes oceanic hot spots form? |
|
|
Term
basalt eruptions
pillow lava
island |
|
Definition
| Plumes under oceanic plates initiate as _____ at the seafloor forming a growing mound of _____. Over time, volcano builds above sea level to form an _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Once subaerial, basalt lava erupting is no longer freezing so quickly, which allows flows over a greater distance (as a thin sheet). Lava builds upward and outward, and the island grows and yields a _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Portions of the subaerial volcano can’t resist the pull of gravity and slip seaward, creating large _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Yellowstone National Park |
|
Definition
| Lies at the NE end of a track of volcanism marked by a string of calderas. It is the oldest caldera at the SW end of track – erupted 16 ma. |
|
|
Term
basaltic
pyroclastic debris |
|
Definition
| Yellowstone's eruptions, unlike Hawaii's, involve both _____ lava and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| At Yellowstone, basaltic magma rising from asthenosphere heats up and partially melts continental crust (adding _____), which results in _____ eruptions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ lava erupts above a plume due to thinned lithosphere erupting magma from long _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| huge sheets of low-viscosity lava |
|
|
Term
plateau
Large Igneous Provinces (LIPs) |
|
Definition
| Repetitions of eruptions can build up a broad _____, where the aggregate volume of rock can be large (>175,000 km3), yielding ______. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Flood-basalt eruptions initiate when a _____ first rises beneath a region undergoing rifting. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In flood-basalt eruptions, the plume reaches the base of the lithosphere- it has a _____ with partially _____ rock. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In flood-basalt eruptions, stretching and thinning of lithosphere allows _____ of plume and even more melting. Melt then rises along _____ formed in the rift – and erupts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ is a hot spot beneath a MOR |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most volcanic activity takes place on _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The sea sort of “hides” _____ plate boundary volcanism (with the exception of Iceland!). |
|
|
Term
Convergent boundaries-subduction-island & continental arcs
Divergent boundaries-rifting-flood-basalt
No boundary-hot spot-oceanic & continental |
|
Definition
| Name the types of volcanism and boundaries. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In the past 2,000 years, volcanoes have caused an estimated _____ deaths |
|
|
Term
| Understanding volcanic behavior |
|
Definition
| _____ is the best defense against volcanoes. |
|
|
Term
Lava flows
Pyroclastic flows
Ash and lapilli |
|
Definition
| Volcanic hazards due to eruptive materials include _____, _____, & ______. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lava threats are mostly from _____ eruptions because it flows _____ and spreads over a broad area. This lava can destroy immovable objects. (lava doesn't typically kill people) |
|
|
Term
Pyroclastic flows
Instant death |
|
Definition
| Nuee ardentes-Clouds of rolling ash and gas race down flanks of a volcano, riding over a carpet of superheated air. _____ to anything in its path. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During _____ eruption, ash that erupted in the air will later fall close to the volcano – forming _____ and _____, which can bury everything, smash through things, and stop engines. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Addition of water to ash and lapilli results in mudflows called _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Explosions are ejected sideways during a _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Blast hazard is uncommon because most eruptions are _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Eruption-related slope failures |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Landslides are a _____ occurrence. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lahars have the consistency of _____ and can therefore pack more force and carry away everything in its path. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Moving magma breaks rocks underground and causes
_____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquakes caused by moving magma are _____ in magnitude, tend to be _____, can cause slope failures and damage to structures, and can also induce fires from pipes breaking |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Where volcanic eruptions occur in the sea, the blast and underwater collapse of a caldera generates _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Volcanic gases such as hydrogen sulfide, H2S; carbon dioxide, CO2 are _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| average time between eruptions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| erupting, recently erupted or likely to erupt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hasn’t erupted in hundreds of thousands of years, but have potential to erupt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| not capable of erupting anymore |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ can shut off magma. After extinction, _____ takes over. |
|
|
Term
historical
age
tectonically
shape |
|
Definition
| One can examine _____ record, _____ of erupted rocks, evidence that volcano is still _____ active, and _____ and extent of volcano, which gives information about age in order to determine whether it is active or extinct. |
|
|
Term
| Earthquake activity, heat flow, changes in shape, and emission increases. |
|
Definition
| What are the warning signs that precede most eruptions? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| magma flow increases _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| magma causes volcanoes to “heat up”, which may melt snow or ice, triggering _____ before eruption. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| magma causes volcanoes to “_____”, causing the surface of the volcano to bulge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases in _____ volume indicate magma has entered the ground below |
|
|
Term
Danger-assessment maps
evacuation
diverting flows |
|
Definition
| The government mitigates hazard by using _____, _____, and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Volcanic eruptions can be large enough to alter _____. |
|
|
Term
sunlight
solar radiation
infrared radiation
atmospheric cooling |
|
Definition
| Ash and aerosols high in the atmosphere block _____ and absorbs incoming _____ during the day; but do not absorb the _____ rising from Earth’s surface at night, causing _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ activity is evident on the Moon and other planets. |
|
|
Term
| Lunar maria (dark “seas”) |
|
Definition
| are regions of flood basalts from over 3 billion years ago on the moon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| extinct Martian shield volcano (largest known in the Solar System) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All planets have evidence of volcanism except _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rocks forming at or near the surface of the Earth by cementing (lithifying) loose grains together |
|
|
Term
weathering
precipitation
shells
shell-producing organisms |
|
Definition
| Loose grains are produced from the physical or chemical _____ of preexisting rock, _____ of minerals from water solutions, _____ and their fragments , and growth of masses of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earth is covered by these loose grains as a thin _____ of sediment. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Occurring only in the upper portion of the crust, loose grains behave as a “cover” or veneer capping _____ and _____ “basement” rocks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Layers of sedimentary rock are analogous to pages of a book in that they record information about ancient _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The layers of sedimentary rock that record information are known as the _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sediment cover is thinner (or missing) where igneous and metamorphic rocks _____, and thicker in sedimentary _____, which provide a depression where sediments can accumulate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sediments are the building blocks of _____. |
|
|
Term
Clastic
Biochemical
Organic
Chemical |
|
Definition
| Name the four classes of sedimentary rock. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| class of sedimentary rock made from weathered fragments (clasts) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| class of sedimentary rock made from cemented shells of organisms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| class of sedimentary rock that contains the carbon-rich remains of plants |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| class of sedimentary rock made from minerals that crystallize (precipitate) directly from water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ sed rocks consist of solid grains (clasts) consisting of either individual minerals or fragments of rock stuck together to form a solid mass. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Clastic sedimentary rocks reflect several _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
generation of detritus (eroded matter) via
rock disintegration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| removal of sediment grains from rock |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dispersal by wind, water, and ice |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| settling out of the transporting fluid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transformation into solid rock |
|
|
Term
burial
compaction
cementation |
|
Definition
| Name the three methods of lithification. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lithification method where more sediment is added onto previous layers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lithification method where pressure is caused by the weight of overlying material (overburden); reduces pore space by squeezing out trapped water and air. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Lithification method where minerals grow in pores (e.g., precipitation from groundwater) and fill spaces – acts like “glue” to hold sediment together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Clastic Sed Rocks are classified on the basis of _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the average diameter of the clasts, ranging from very coarse to very fine (Boulder, cobble, pebbly, sand, silt, clay) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| With increasing transport, average grain size _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the mineral makeup of sediments (May be individual minerals or rock fragments) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Properties of clast composition and mineral ID provides clues about the _____ of the sediment and the _____ of deposition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| indicate degree of transport of clastic sed rocks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fresh _____ is usually angular and non-spherical |
|
|
Term
increase
Well-rounded
Angular |
|
Definition
Grain roundness (2D) and sphericity (3D) _____ with
transport. _____ = long transport distances. _____ = negligible transport |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the uniformity of grain size |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wide variety of grain sizes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sorting becomes better with __________. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| minerals that fill sediment pores when dissolved ions slowly crystallize to fill pores after fluids with dissolved solids flush through the pore system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cement varies from _____ to _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Quartz, Calcite, Hematite, & Clay minerals are examples of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| composed of gravel-sized clasts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Depending on the roundness & sphericity, coarse clastics may be _____ or _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| comprised of angular fragments |
|
|
Term
transport processing
close to |
|
Definition
| Angularity of breccia indicates lack of _____, meaning that it was deposited relatively _____ the source. |
|
|
Term
conglomerate
water transport |
|
Definition
| comprised of rounded gravel; Indicates _____. |
|
|
Term
| round angular corners and edges |
|
Definition
| Clasts bang together forcefully in flowing water, and collisions __________ of clasts, making conglomerate clast. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Conglomerate are deposited _____ from source. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| clastic rock made of sand-sized particles (medium to coarse clast sizes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sandstone forms in _____ depositional environments/settings |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ is (*by far) the dominant mineral in sandstones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The two varieties of sandstone include _____, which contains abundant feldspar, and _____, which is almost pure quartz. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| composed of silt and clay |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ are deposited in quieter waters (Floodplains, lagoons, mudflats, deltas, deep-water basins). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Organic-rich shales are the source of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Biochemical and Organic Rocks are sediments derived from _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rock that comes from hard mineral skeletons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rock that comes from cells of plants, algae, bacteria, and plankton |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| CaCO3 skeletal (shell) remains |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Biochemical limestone is found in warm, tropical, shallow, clear, _____-rich marine waters, and contains diverse organisms (plankton, corals, clams, snails, etc.). |
|
|
Term
Reefs
Shell debris
Lime mud (micrite) |
|
Definition
| Many textural varieties of biochemical limestone, including _____, _____, & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rock made of cryptocrystalline quartz |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Biochemical chert is formed form opalline silica (SiO2) skeleton, made up of _____ (silicon dioxide), or microscopic single-celled algae, and _____(silica). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Opalline silica added to bottom sediments dissolves, and silica pore fluids solidify to form _____ or _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| altered remains of fossil vegetation (plant remains) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Coal accumulates in _____ settings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Coal is formed when remains are deeply buried and _____ and _____ compact material, driving off volatiles (hydrogen, water, CO2, ammonia) and leaving concentration of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| shale with heat altered organic matter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| comprised of minerals precipitated from water solution. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Created from evaporated seawater |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Evaporation triggers _____ of chemical precipitates. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| CaCO3 precipitated from groundwater where it reached the surface |
|
|
Term
calcium (Ca2+)
bicarbonate(HCO3-) |
|
Definition
| Travertine is formed when dissolved _____ reacts with _____. |
|
|
Term
Thermal (hot) springs
Caves |
|
Definition
| CO2 expelled into the air causes CaCO3 to precipitate, yielding _____ & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Limestone altered by Mg-rich fluids (groundwater) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| CaCO3 altered to dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 by _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dolostone looks like _____, except it has a sugary texture and a pervasive porosity and it weathers to a buff, tan color. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Much of dolostone is a limestone that has undergone _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Replacement chert forms when cryptocrystalline quartz replaces _____ crystals in a body of limestone long after the limestone is deposited. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chert has _____ fracture and can produce very sharp edges. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Flint, Jasper, petrified wood, and agate are examples of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| black or grey from organic matter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| red or yellow from Fe-oxides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wood grain preserved by silica |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| concentrically layered rings |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Many kinds of sed rocks differ from one another by their mode of _____ and _____ (:Clastic, Biochemical and Organic, Chemical) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Features imparted to sediments at or near deposition. |
|
|
Term
Layering
Surface features on layers
Arrangement of grains |
|
Definition
| Features imparted to sediments at or near deposition include _____, _____, and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sedimentary structures are important for deciphering conditions at or near time of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ rocks are usually layered or “stratified.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Arranged in planar, close-to-horizontal “beds” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
single layer of sediment or sedimentary rock with a
recognizable top and bottom |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bedding is often _____ continuous for long distances |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Beds are often similar in _____, _____, and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Bedding reflects changing conditions during _____ (or _____). |
|
|
Term
climate
water
velocity
sediment
disturbance |
|
Definition
| Changing conditions that are reflected by deposition or erosion include _____, _____ depth, current _____, _____ source, & _____ by organisms. |
|
|
Term
water depth
current velocity |
|
Definition
| _____ and _____ are energy conditions that reflect grain size. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Strata recognized on a regional scale (If more than one rock type must specify “formation”) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Geologic maps display the distribution of _____ and are named based on their geographic location where they were found. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water flowing over loose sediment creates _____. |
|
|
Term
flow velocity
sediment size |
|
Definition
| Bedforms are linked to _____ and _____. (E.g., Ripple marks, cross beds, dunes) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cm-scale ridges and troughs that indicate flow (direction, strength). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| What are the two types of ripples? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ripples are often preserved in _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| similar to ripples, but much larger |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dunes indicate direction of _____ (lee/ slip & stoss sides) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dunes form from wind-blown sand in _____ or _____ environments. |
|
|
Term
| internal cross-lamination |
|
Definition
| Dunes often preserve large _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| created by ripple and dune migration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cross beds are formed when sediment moves _____ the gentle side of a ripple or dune and _____, then slips down the steep face of the dune. The slip face continually moves _____, and added sediment forms sloping “cross-bedded” layers. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| results from loose sediment mixing with water creating a murky, turbulent cloud. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
moving submarine suspension of sediment that
flows downslope like an underwater avalanche. |
|
|
Term
Turbidity currents
turbidite |
|
Definition
| _____ are caused when sediment moves on a slope as a pulse of turbid water, and as pulse wanes, the water looses velocity and grain settles. The coarsest material settles first, and finest last yielding graded beds. Deposit = _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| layers of sediment in which grain size varies from coarse at the bottom to fine at the top |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| features that occur after deposition while sediment is still soft |
|
|
Term
Mudcracks
Scourmarks
Fossils |
|
Definition
| Bed-surface markings include _____, _____, & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polygonal desiccation features in wet mud |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mud cracks indicate alternating _____ and _____ conditions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| troughs eroded in soft mud by current flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evidence of past life such as footprints or shell impressions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Depositional environments are locations where sediment accumulates differ in _____ regime, sediment delivery, transport, and depositional conditions, and chemical and physical and _____ characteristics. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Depositional environments range from _____ to _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deposited above sea level |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ often indicates subaerial conditions because oxygen-rich surface or subsurface water creates oxides iron, or iron oxide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| deposited at or below sea level |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Marine environments depends on the environment, water _____, and _____ present. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Glacial ice carries and dumps every grain size (poorly sorted) creating _____, or poorly sorted gravel, sand, silt, clay. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Glacial, Mountain stream, Alluvial fan, Sand dune, and River,
Lake are all examples of _____ depositional environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Marine delta, Coastal beach, Shallow-marine, Shallow-
water carbonate, and Deep-marine are all examples of _____ depositional environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In _____ terrestrial depositional environments, water carries large clasts during floods. During low flow, these cobble and boulders are immobile. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ is characteristic of mountain stream terrestrial depositional environments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sediment that pile up at a mountain front |
|
|
Term
velocity
conglomerates
arkoses |
|
Definition
| In alluvial fans, a rapid drop in stream _____ creates a cone-shaped wedge. Sediments are immature _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wind blown piles of well-sorted sand |
|
|
Term
prevailing winds
cross beds |
|
Definition
| Dunes move according to the _____ and result in uniform sandstones with gigantic _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| channelized flow transports sediment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In rivers, sand and gravel fill concave-upward _____, and fine sand, silt, and clay are deposited on nearby floodplains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| large ponded bodies of water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In lakes, gravels and sands are trapped near shore, and well-sorted muds deposited in deeper water. They are often capped with _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sediments dropped where a river enters the sea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In deltas, sediment carried by the river is dumped when _____. Deltas grow over time, building out into the basin, and often develop a topset-foreset-bottomset geometry. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Coastal beaches create a _____. |
|
|
Term
| well-sorted, well-rounded medium sand |
|
Definition
| At coastal beaches, sediments are constantly being processed by wave attack, commonly resulting in _______________. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Beach sandstones may preserve _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| finer version of beach sediment |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In a shallow marine, fine silts and muds turn into _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shallow marines usually support an active _____ community. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ are found in tropical marine deposition environments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shallow water carbonates contain skeletons of marine _____ born in the _____ factory in warm, clear, shallow, normal salinity, marine waters. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In _____ marine deposition environments, fines predominate far from land sources. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In deep marine deposition environments, skeletons of planktonic organisms make _____ or _____, and fine silts and clays turn to _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Sediments vary in thickness across Earth’s surface from thin to zero thickness where non-sedimentary rocks _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sinking of land during sedimentation |
|
|
Term
crustal flexure
faulting
compounded |
|
Definition
| Subsidence is due to _____ and _____ and _____ by the weight of added sediments. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Thick accumulations of sediment form only in special regions where the surface of the Earth’s lithosphere _____ as sediment collects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sediment-filled depression |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ are important locations for natural resources such as coal, petroleum, natural gas, and uranium. |
|
|
Term
creates space
accommodation space |
|
Definition
| Basins form where tectonic activity _____ known as _____. |
|
|
Term
| Different sedimentary basins are distinguished based on the region of the lithosphere plate in which they formed. |
|
Definition
| How are different sedimentary basins distinguished? |
|
|
Term
Rift basins
Passive-margin basins
Intracontinental basins
Foreland basins |
|
Definition
| What are the different types of lithosphere regions that sedimentary basins are formed on? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| divergent (pull-apart) plate boundaries |
|
|
Term
| sediment fills the down-dropped basin |
|
Definition
| In rift basins, crust thins by stretching and rotational normal faulting, then the thinned crust subsides and ___________________________. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| non-plate boundary continental edge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Passive margin basins are underlain by crust thinned by _____. The thinned crust subsides as it _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| interiors far from margins |
|
|
Term
| differential thermal subsidence |
|
Definition
| Intracontinental basins result from __________ and may be linked to failed crustal rifts. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| craton side of collisional mountain belt |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Foreland basins form because flexure of the crust from _____ creates a downwarp that fills with debris that eroded off of the mountains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| __________ strongly influence sedimentary deposition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Changes in sea level are commonplace geologically. _____ shift landward (sea-level rise) or seaward (sea- level fall) in response. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Layers of _____ record deepening or shallowing upward. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| flooding due to sea-level rise |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During transgression, sediment belts shift _____; strata “deepen” _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| exposure due to sea-level fall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During regression, depositional belts shift _____; strata “shallow” _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Regression is linked to _____ and is therefore less likely to be preserved. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| physical, chemical, and biological changes to sediment transforming it to sedimentary rock |
|
|
Term
Bioturbation
Lithification
Dissolution
Mineral precipitation |
|
Definition
| Diagenesis can also alter characteristics of sedimentary rock after the rock has formed through _____, _____, _____, _____, & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During diagenesis, temperature _____ gradually between burial and metamorphism and pressure _____ with burial. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Diagenesis integrates changes across the entire sediment _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| changed from an original “parent rock” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Parent rocks of metamorphic rocks are called “_____” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphism can occur to _____ because of the _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protoliths undergo “solid-state” changes in _____ & _____. |
|
|
Term
Temperature
Pressure
Tectonic stresses
Reactions with heated water |
|
Definition
| Protoliths undergo "solid state" changes due to changes in _____, _____, _____, & _____. |
|
|
Term
Unique texture
Unique minerals
Unique foliation |
|
Definition
| Metamorphic rocks have distinctive properties, including unique _____, _____, & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A property of metamorphic rocks where there are intergrown and interlocking grains |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A property of metamorphic rocks where there are some that are only metamorphic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A property of metamorphic rocks where there is a planar fabric from aligned minerals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic change occurs slowly in the _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| minerals change size and shape (without change in the identity of the mineral constituting the grains). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| new minerals form with the same chemical formula and a different crystal structure (rearrangement of atoms). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| new minerals with changes in temperature and pressure |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During neocrystallization, initial minerals become _____ and change to new minerals, and the original protolith minerals are digested in _____. Then, elements restructure to form new minerals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shale transforms into a _____ through the process of neocrystallization. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mineral grains soften and deform |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Plastic deformation requires elevated _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During plastic deformation, rock is squeezed or sheared and minerals act like _____, changing shape without breaking |
|
|
Term
Heat
Pressure
Compression and/or shear
Hot water |
|
Definition
| Rocks undergo metamorphism when subjected to _____, _____, _____, & _____. |
|
|
Term
geothermal gradient
magmatic
compression breaks |
|
Definition
| When metamorphism occurs as the result of heat, heat energy from the _____, _____ intrusions, or _____ reforms atomic bonds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ increases with depth in the crust. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mineral _____ is highly dependent upon temperature and pressure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mineral stability can be graphed on a “_____.” Changes in T and P lead to changes in _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pressure that is greater in one orientation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Differential Stress is a commonplace result of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Two kinds of differential stress are _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Stress that operates perpendicular to a surface. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Pull-apart normal stress. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Push-together normal stress. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| operates sideways across a surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shear Stress causes material to be “_____.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| At higher T and P, differential stress _____ rock. (i.e. rocks change shape slowly without breaking) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Deformation acts on minerals with specific shapes such as _____ & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Roughly equal in all dimensions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inequant shape with 1 dimension shorter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inequant shape with 1 dimension longer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Differential stress causes these deformed minerals to _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Alignment fabric records _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Preferred platy mineral alignment is called _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Foliation imparts a _____ or _____ appearance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rocks commonly break _____ to foliation planes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Foliation develops _____ to compression. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During foliation, minerals flatten, ____ and rotate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ grains align by rotation and new growth. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hot water with dissolved ions and volatiles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrothermal fluids facilitate metamorphism because they _____ chemical reactions and _____ rocks by adding or subtracting elements. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrothermal alteration is called _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Two major subdivisions of metamorphic rocks are _____ & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic rock type that has a through-going planar fabric |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Foliated rocks are subjected to _____ and have a significant component of _____ minerals. |
|
|
Term
composition
grain
foliation |
|
Definition
| Foliated rocks are classified by _____, _____ size, and _____ type. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic rock type that has no planar fabric evident. |
|
|
Term
differential stress
equant |
|
Definition
| Nonfoliated rock is crystallized without _____. It is comprised of _____ minerals only. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nonfoliated rock is classified by _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Solid state differentiation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Compositional banding develops in several ways, including original layering in the _____ and extensive _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fine clay, low-grade metamorphic shale. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Slate has a distinct foliation called _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Slate develops by _____ alignment of platy clay minerals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Slaty cleavage is oriented _____ to compression. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Slate breaks along this foliation (slaty cleavage) creating _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Phyllite is formed by low- to medium-grade alteration of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In Phyllite, _____ minerals neocrystallize into tiny micas |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Micas reflect a _____ luster. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Phyllite is between _____ and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fine or coarse rock with larger micas. |
|
|
Term
schistosity
parallel
higher |
|
Definition
| Schist has a distinct foliation called _____, where there is _____ alignment of large mica crystals. The micas are visible because they have grown at _____ T. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Schist often has other minerals due to _____, such as quartz, feldspars, kyanite, and garnet. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Has a distinct banded foliation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Gneiss has light bands of _____ minerals and dark bands of _____ minerals. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a partially melted gneiss |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Migmatite has features of ______ and _____ rocks. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Mineralogy controls behavior of migmatite. Light-colored (felsic) minerals melt at _____ T. • Dark-colored (mafic) minerals melt a _____ T. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ rocks lack a planar fabric. |
|
|
Term
differential stress
equant |
|
Definition
| Absence of foliation is possible for several reasons, including rock not being subjected to _____, and dominance of _____ minerals (Which leads to the absence of platy minerals like clays or micas). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dominated by amphibole minerals; made up of basalt or gabbro _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Amphibolite is usually not well _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hornfels are are associated with _____ and are finely crystalline. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Almost pure quartz in composition. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Quartzite forms by alteration of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In quartzite, sand grains in the protolith _____ and fuse. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Like quartz, quartzite is _____, _____, and _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Coarsely crystalline calcite or dolomite. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Marble forms from a limestone or dolostone _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In marble, extensive _____ completely changes the rock, and original textures and fossils in the parent are obliterated. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The type of metamorphic rock depends on _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Some protoliths yield specific rocks: Quartz SS yields _____ and CaCO3 yields _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Different minerals are stable as T and P changes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| informal way to indicate the intensity of metamorphism – or the degree of metamorphic change |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A low metamorphic grade indicates _____ temperature and pressure, while a high metamorphic grade indicates _____ temperature and pressure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphism via increasing T and P (think: burial). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphism via decreasing T and P (think: uplift from erosion). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Certain minerals that have a limited P-T range (crystallization & stability); these record metamorphic grade. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regions between of different metamorphic grade. |
|
|
Term
Geothermal gradient
Differential stresses
Hydrothermal fluids |
|
Definition
| Metamorphism occurs in different settings that yield different effects via _____, _____, or _____ (Characteristics governed by tectonics). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment governed by heating by a plutonic intrusion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment where there are increases in P and T by deep burial in a basin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment where there is shearing in a fault zone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment where there is P and T alteration due to orogenesis |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment where there is alteration by hot-water leaching |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment where there is high P to low T alteration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Metamorphic environment where there is extremely high P attending a bolide impact |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| due to heat from magma invading host rock |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Contact metamorphism creates zoned bands (_____) of alteration in _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| as sediments are buried in a sedimentary basin, P increases because of the weight of the overburden, and T increases because of the geothermal gradient. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Burial metamorphism requires burial below _____ effects. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Breakage of rock by shearing at a fault zone (*shearing alone; not T or P). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Fault location determines type of alteration. In shallow crust (Upper 10–15 km) rocks behave in a _____
fashion, and mineral grains crush-forming fault _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| In deeper crust (Below 10–15 km) rocks behave in a _____ manner. Minerals smear like taffy to form _____ (which are found at all plate boundaries) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tectonic collisions deform huge “mobile belts.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During regional metamorphism, directed _____ thickens mountains. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Rocks caught up in mountain building during regional metamorphism are _____ via the geothermal gradient and plutonic intrusions, _____ and heated by deep burial, and _____ and sheared by differential stresses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
most important in terms of amount of rock
altered. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Regional metamorphism creates _____ rocks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ resulting form regional metamorphism are often thousands of km long and hundreds of km wide |
|
|
Term
| hydrothermal metamorphism |
|
Definition
| alteration by hot, chemically aggressive water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrothermal metamorphism is a dominant process near _____, where cold ocean water seeps into fractured crust and is heated by magma, then reacts with mafic rock, and the hot water rises and is ejected via _____ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| subduction creates the unique blueschist facies |
|
|
Term
Trenches
accretionary prisms |
|
Definition
| _____ and _____ have a low geothermal gradient (low T) and a high pressure. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Where there is subduction metamorphism, there is high P, and low T, which favors _____, a blue amphibole mineral |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the rare occasion when Earth is struck by a comet or an asteroid. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During shock metamorphism, impact generates a compressional shock wave, creating extremely high P, and heat that vaporizes or melts large masses of rock, which creates _____. |
|
|
Term
| Exhumation is due to uplift, collapse, and erosion |
|
Definition
| How do metamorphic rocks return to the surface? |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large regions of ancient (Precambrian, >500 mya) high-grade rocks, called _____, are exposed in continental interiors. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shields are eroded remnants of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shield rocks form the basement under _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquakes have caused _____ deaths in the last 2000 years. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| earth shaking caused by a rapid release of energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During an earthquake, energy moves outward as an expanding sphere of _____ that can be measured around the globe. |
|
|
Term
| Tectonic stresses that cause rocks to break. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
motion
fault
mineral
inflation
eruption
landslides
meteorite
nuclear |
|
Definition
| Seismicity occurs due to _____ along a newly formed crustal fracture (or fault), motion on an existing _____, a sudden change in _____ structure, _____ of a magma chamber, volcanic _____, giant _____, _____ impacts, or _____ detonations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| “focus”, spot within the Earth where earthquake waves originate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hypocenters usually occur on a _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquake waves expand _____ from hypocenter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| land surface above the hypocenter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Majority of quakes occur along _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Common crustal fractures that move rock masses. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The amount of movement along a fault is called _____, or an offset or slip. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ reveal the amount of offset. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Faults are like _____ breaks in blocks of crust |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Most faults _____ (some are vertical) |
|
|
Term
Footwall
Hanging wall
Fault Scarp |
|
Definition
| On the sloping fault, crustal blocks are classified as a _____, or block below the fault, a _____, or block above the fault, or a _____, which is the difference in displaced ground elevation (small step) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Fault type based on _____ block motion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hanging wall moves down relative to footwall |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Normal faults result from _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hanging wall moves up relative to footwall |
|
|
Term
compression – squeezing or shortening
steep |
|
Definition
| Reverse faults result from __________. The slope (dip) of fault is _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| special kind of reverse fault (hanging wall moves up relative to footwall) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The slope (dip) of a thrust fault surface is _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blocks slide laterally past one another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| On a strike-slip fault, there is NO vertical block _____, the fault surface is nearly _____. |
|
|
Term
Quakes occur when rocks break and a new fault forms. Quakes occur when a preexisting fault suddenly slips
again. |
|
Definition
| What is the relationship between faulting and earthquakes? |
|
|
Term
stress
stick-slip behavior |
|
Definition
| A preexisting fault may suddenly slip again due to _____ (push, pull, or shear) or _____, where there is alternation between stress build-up at a fault (no slip) and the release of stress (slip – earthquake). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ forces add stress to unbroken rocks, and the rock deforms slightly, which is called _____. |
|
|
Term
cracks
failure
brittle deformation |
|
Definition
Continued stress from unbroken rocks will cause growth of _____. Eventually, cracks grow to the point of _____.
When the rock breaks, elastic strain transforms into _____, releasing earthquake energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Faults move in _____. Once movement starts, it quickly stops due to _____. Eventually, strain builds up again causing failure. This is the _____ behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to the concept that earthquakes happen because of stresses built up, causing rocks to bend elastically until slip on a fault occurs |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The Elastic Rebound Theory relates the movement of one plate with respect to another, along the plate _____, generating the stress to generate an earthquake. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| energy from rock/sediment displacement |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Waves are distinguished on the basis of _____ and _____ the waves move. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| waves that pass through Earth’s interior |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| waves that travel along Earth’s surface |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Compressional, or _____ waves exhibit push-pull (compress and expand) motion. Vibrations are _____ to the direction of wave. They travel through solids, liquids, and gases, and travel the fastest. |
|
|
Term
secondary (S)
perpendicular
solids |
|
Definition
| Shear, or _____ waves exhibit “shaking" motion. Vibration direction is _____ to wave direction. They travel only through _____, and are slower. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| S waves intersecting the surface that move back and forth like a writhing snake. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| P waves intersecting the surface that move like ripples on a pond. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| L & R waves are the slowest and most _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smaller earthquakes proceeding the “main shock” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| With foreshocks there are _____ cracks eventually linking up to form a _____ rupture. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smaller earthquakes occurring after the “main shock” for days to several weeks |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| With aftershocks, there is movement of rock during the main quake generating new _____, still large enough to generate small nearby faults. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| study of earthquake waves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Instruments that record seismicity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Seismology reveals _____ and _____ of earthquakes anywhere on earth using seismographs located worldwide. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Seismographs measure wave _____ and magnitude of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Seismographs are bolted to bedrock in protected shelter. The 1st wave of activity causes seismograph frame to _____, and the pen goes up, and the next vibration causes opposite motion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Waves always arrive in sequence. The _____ waves first, _____ waves second, _____ waves last. |
|
|
Term
velocities
distance
travel-time |
|
Definition
| One may locate an epicenter because p and s waves travel at different _____. The first arrivals of p and s waves vary with _____. A _____ graph plots the distance of each station to the epicenter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Data from 3 stations can pinpoint the epicenter by drawing a circle around each station. The _____ is equal to the distance to epicenter, therefore, circles around stations will intersect at the epicenter. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquake size is described by either _____ or _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The degree of shaking damage can be measured on a _____ scale, where roman numerals are assigned to different levels of damage (I, lowest to XII, highest). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Damage occurs to humans and human-made
structures in _____, and _____ in intensity with
distance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The amount of energy released by an earthquake. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Magnitude is the _____ seismogram motion and is _____ for distance. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| best magnitude scale for shallow quakes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| scale that considers different waves, area of fault, and amount of slip |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Magnitude scales are _____, meaning for increases of 1 unit there is a 10 fold increase in ground motion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquake energy can be calculated, and is related to magnitude. If it increases by 1 in magnitude, there is a _____-fold increase in energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Small earthquakes are frequent. There are about _____ magnitude 3 earthquakes per year. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Large earthquakes are rare. There are about _____ magnitude 7 earthquakes per year. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ earthquakes are located at divergent and transform boundaries. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ & _____ earthquakes are located at convergent boundaries. |
|
|
Term
MOR
transform
trenches
continental |
|
Definition
| Shallow (0-20 km) earthquakes occur along _____, _____ boundaries, the shallow part of _____, and on _____ crust. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Intermediate (20-300 km) and deep (300-670 km) occur along the _____ trace, or the _____ zone. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Intermediate and deep earthquakes occur due to _____ by
shear between plate and mantle; and _____ of deeper part of plate. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquakes occur along _____ boundaries, and it is for this reason that cities near subduction zones have frequent earthquakes. Most are minor, but periodically, they are devastating. |
|
|
Term
transform
rifts
collision
intraplate |
|
Definition
| Continental crust earthquakes occur along continental _____ faults (San Andreas), continental _____ (Basin and Range, East African Rift), _____ zones (Himalayas, Alps), or _____ settings (ancient crustal weaknesses). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____% of earthquakes are intraplate earthquakes. No one really knows why these happen. |
|
|
Term
ground shaking
displacement |
|
Definition
| Earthquake hazards such as _____ and _____ occur because waves arrive in a distinct sequence, and different waves cause different motion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| P waves, the 1st to arrive, produce a _______________ motion. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| S waves, the 2nd to arrive, produce a pronounced _____ motion, usually much stronger than from P- waves. It is for this reason that S waves cause extensive _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Surface waves lag behind S waves. The Love waves are the first to follow. These make the ground ___________. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| R waves are the last to arrive. They make the land surface behave like _____. These waves may last longer than others, and for this reason may also cause extensive damage. |
|
|
Term
magnitude
distance
intensity
duration
subsurface |
|
Definition
| Severity of shaking and damage depends on the _____ (energy) of the earthquake (More = more), the _____ from the hypocenter, the _____ and _____ of the vibrations, and the nature of the _____ material. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ transmits waves quickly, causing less damage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ bounce waves, causing amplified damage. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Shaking causes slopes to fail, causing _____ & _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hazardous slopes bear evidence of ancient slope _____. |
|
|
Term
Rockslides
avalanches
Mount St. Helens |
|
Definition
_____ and _____ follow earthquakes in uplands.
(_____ erupted via an earthquake landslide.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Waves liquefy H2O-filled sediments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| During liquefaction, high _____ force grains apart, reducing friction. Liquefied sediments flow as a _____. Sand becomes “quicksand;” clay becomes “quickclay.” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ is a common hazard following earthquakes because shaking topples stoves, candles, and power lines, and broken gas mains and fuel tanks ignite. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquakes can cause _____, or seismic sea waves (not tidal waves). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tsunamis occur when normal faulting _____ the seabed and thrusting _____ it, displacing the entire volume of overlying water. Then, a giant mound (or trough) forms on the sea surface, and feature collapse creates waves that race rapidly away. |
|
|
Term
upper 100 meters
entire depth |
|
Definition
| Wind waves influence the _____ of water, while tsunami waves influence the _____ of water. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Wind waves have wavelengths of several tens to hundreds of _____, while tsunami waves have wavelengths of several 10s to 100s of _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Wind wave height and wavelength are _____ windspeed, while tsunami wave height and wavelength are _____ windspeed. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Wind wave velocity maximum is several _____ of km per hour, while tsunami wave velocity maximum is several _____ of kph. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| _____ waves break in shallow water and expend all stored energy, while _____ waves come ashore as a raised plateau of water that pours onto the land. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tsunamis race at _____ speed across the ocean. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tsunamis may be almost unnoticeable in deep water because of their low _____ (amplitude) and long _____ (frequency). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Relationship between water _____, wave _____, and wave _____ causes the wave height to grow in shallow water, and may reach 10-15 m or more. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Tsunami destruction of the coast depends upon offshore _____ and the _____ of shore. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Offshore broad shallows increase _____ but sap wave _____. |
|
|
Term
| Quick deep-to-shallow transition |
|
Definition
| _______________ is the deadliest condition because waves have maximum energy, wave heights are modest, and water pours onto land as a sheet. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Broad lowland where the wave hits shore results in _____ damage, while the steep rise of land results in _____ damage. |
|
|
Term
scarce
disabled
hospitals
overtaxed
corpses |
|
Definition
| Disease is a prominent earthquake hazard because food, water, and medicines are _____, basic sanitation capabilities are _____, _____ are damaged or destroyed, health professionals are _____, and there may be many decaying _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Prediction would help reduce catastrophic losses, but they can only be predicted _____ (tens to hundreds of years); they CANNOT be predicted short-term (hours to months). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long-term prediction determine the probability of a certain magnitude earthquake occurring on a timescale of 30 to 100 years, or more, in _____. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Long-term earthquake predictions are based on the premise that earthquakes are _____. Geologists map historical epicenters and ancient earthquakes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Geologic evidence of earthquakes are _____ volcanoes, offset _____, and _____ dating of tree rings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The goal of short-term predictions is to determine the _____ and _____ of a large earthquake. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Earthquakes do have precursors, including clustered _____, crustal _____, and _____ triggering. |
|
|
Term
mapping
construction codes
regulating |
|
Definition
| We can prepare for an earthquake by understanding what happens during one, by _____ active faults and areas that are likely to liquify from shaking, developing _____to reduce building failures, and _____ land-use to control development. |
|
|
