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| Used sunspots to estimate sun's rotation rate. |
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| Showed that the sun rotates differentially (different speeds at different solar latitudes). |
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| Recorded the occurrence of aurora between 1582 and 1598 from his observatory in Denmark. Found that the number of aurora varies from year to year. |
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| Noted that the aurora must occur high in Earth's atmosphere because observes at distance locations could see the same thing. |
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| Correctly estimated the auroral height to be between 80 to 112 km. |
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| First European to observe the souther lights while in the Indian Ocean in 1773. Called them aurora australis (southern lights) |
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| Demonstrated that the Earth's magnetic field behaves like a magnet, led to systematic study of magnetic field orientation as a function of position on earth. |
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| Recognized existence of an 11 year solar cycle in 1844. |
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| Noted that an aurora over London seemed to have rays converging toward Earth that were similar to the Earth's magnetic field lines. Drew the magnetic field lines outside Earth by extrapolating from the shape that iron filings make around a magnet. |
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| Confirmed the alignment of auroral rays with Earth's magnetic field in 1770. |
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| Observed slight magnetic fluctuations with his compass in 1722. |
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| Anders Celsius and Olaf Hiorter |
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Definition
| Observed magnetic fluctuations correlated with observations of aurorae in 1747. |
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| Edward Sabine and Rudolf Wolf |
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| Independently first to publish results showing correlation between sunspots and geomagnetic activity. |
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| An emerging field within space sciences that studies how the sun influences the Earth's space environment and the technological and societal impacts of that interaction. |
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| long-term weather trends. |
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| Science of understanding weather. |
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| Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) |
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| A large part of the solar atmosphere streaming away from the sun at high speeds after erupting from the surface. |
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| Boundaries between spheres. |
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| Many degrees of magnetic needle fluctuation in several minutes. Large geomagnetic disturbances. |
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| Region of the upper atmosphere associated with current flow and the aurorae. |
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| Giant cloud of gas and dust of which sun was formed. |
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| When denser area of solar nebula gathers material to itself because of its gravitational pull. Self-sustaining process. |
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| Amount of material in a given volume. |
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| The balance between force of gravity pulling material into sun and the force due to pressure of the gas pushing out. |
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| Electromagnetic radiation |
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Definition
| Energy created by thermonuclear reactions in the core that fuse protons together to form helium nuclei, some is liberated and escapes into space as EMR. |
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| Transfer of heat in absence of fluid motions. |
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| Transfer of heat by fluid motions. |
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| Transfer of heat through EMR. |
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| Using sound waves to study the interior of the sun. |
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| Total amount of energy emitted by the sun each second. |
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| Light nuclei are fused to heavier nuclei. High temps mean mostly protons in the core, when they collide forms a proton-proton chain which leads to 1 helium nucleus. Some energy escapes. |
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| Regions of strong magnetic field. Darker because sightly cooler. Can last for weeks. |
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| Dark and light regions on photosphere, proves solar convection because bright areas show Doppler shift up to blue while dark areas show Doppler shift down to red. |
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| Specific electronic transition within hydrogen. Unique wavelength of visible light with a reddish hue. |
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| Loop-like filaments observed above the limb of the sun. |
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| Outer atmosphere of the sun, visible during solar eclipses, expands out supersonically. |
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| In presence of magnetic field, a gas' spectral lines split into 2 or more components. Frequency of lines depends on strength of magnetic field. Used to measure solar surface magnetic field. |
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| 11 year cycle of waxing and waning number of sunspots. |
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| Time it takes 1 density perturbation cycle to pass. |
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| Number of events in a given time interval in Hertz. |
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| Amount of displacement, measure of size of a wave. |
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| Distance between troughs or crests of waves. |
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| Shift in frequency of a wave due to relative motion of the sound emitter and observer. |
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| Produced when light energy is above a certain threshold level, demonstrates the particle nature of light. |
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| Amount of EMR and its peak frequency depend on the temperature of an object. The amount of radiation at any frequency is based only on temperature. |
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| Relates peak wavelength to temperature (Blackbody radiation). Wavelength(peak)T = 2.898x10^-3 m K |
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| The region of interplanetary space where the solar wind is flowing supersonically. |
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| Made up of cometary material that has been heated by sunlight as it gets close to the sun and escaped from the nucleus. |
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| Glowing cloud of neutral and ionized gas and dust around the nucleus. "Blown back" away from the sun by solar wind. |
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| Plasma composed of mostly protons, helium nuclei and electrons that moves supersonically away from the sun and carries with it the sun's magnetic field. |
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| Sunlight scattered by electrons in Sun's outer atmosphere, not spherically symmetric or equally bright. More emission near equator because of structure of sun's magnetic field. |
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| Telescopes that routinely observe the corona without solar eclipse by using an occulting disk to block out photospheric light. |
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| The speed at which a particle needs to be moving away from the sun for it to never slow down, turn around and fall onto the sun. 618 km/s. |
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| Mostly protons, helium nuclei and electrons that move supersonically away from the sun and carry with them the sun's magnetic field. Temperature of over 1 million kelvin therefore many have velocities great enough to escape sun. Make up solar wind, so solar wind is ionized plasma. |
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| Interplanetary Magnetic Field (IMF) |
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Definition
| Part of the sun's magnetic field that is pulled out into the heliosphere by solar wind. |
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| The shape of the IMF, cause because of the sun's rotation causing the magnetized solar wind expands radially/directly away from the sun pulling solar magnetic field with it. |
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