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| Credited as the founder of sociology, began to analyze the bases of social order. Stressed that the scientific method should be applied to the study of society, did not apply it himself. Associated with positivism |
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| The application of the scientific approach to the social world |
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| The scientific study of society and human behavior |
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| Called the second founder of scoiology, coined the term "survival of the fittest." Thought that helpingthe poor was wrong, that this merely helped the "less fit" survive |
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| Believed that the roots of human misery lay in class conflict, the exploitation of workers by those who won the means of production. Social change, in the form of the workers overthrowing the capitalists was inevitable from Marx's perspective. Did not consider himself a sociologist. Conflict Theory |
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| Marx's term for the struggle between capitalists and workers |
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| Marx's term for capitalists, those who own the means of production |
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| Marx's term for the exploited class, the mass of workers who do not own the means of production |
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| the degree to which members of a group or a society feel united by shared values and other social bonds, also known as social cohesion |
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| First academic sociologist appointed in France, studied how social forces affect people's behavior (suicide) --> social integration |
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| recurring behaviors or events |
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| Early sociologist, used cross-cultural and historical material to race the causes of social change and to determine how social groups affect people's orientations to life; Theorized that religion (Catholicism) encouraged followers to hold on to traditional ways of life, while Protestant beliefs encouraged members to embrace change |
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| The view that a sociologists personal values or beliefs should not influence social research |
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| the standards by which people define what is desirable or undesirable, good or bad, beautiful or ugly |
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| value neutrality in research |
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| A general statement about how some parts of the world fit together and how they work; an explanation of how two or more facts are related to one another |
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| One of the founders of symbolic interactionism, a major theoretical perspective in sociology- how social life depends on the ways we define ourselves and others |
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| A theoretical perspective in which society is viewed as composed of symbols that people use to establish meaning, develop their views of the world, and communicate with one another (Mead) |
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A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of various parts, each with a function that, when fulfilled, contributes to society's equilibrium; also known as functionalism and structural functionalism
When all parts are working, society is in a "normal" state. if not, abnormal (Merton) |
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| Was a major proponent of functionalism. Used the term "functions" to refer to the beneficial consequences |
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| A theoretical framework in which society is viewed as composed of groups that are competing for scarce resources (Karl Marx) |
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| An examination of large-scale patterns of society, such as how Wall Street and the political establishment are interrelated (Functionalism, Conflict Theory) |
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| An examination of small-scale patterns of society, such as how the member s of a group interact (Symbolic Interactionism) |
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| One person's actions influencing someone else; usually refers to what people do when they are in one another's presence, but also includes communications at a distance |
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| Communication without words through gestures, use of space, silence, and so on |
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| The growing interconnections among nations due to the expansion of capitalism |
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| The process by which people learn the characteristics of their group- the knowledge, skills, attitudes, values, norms, and actions thought appropriate for them. Al 3 theoretical perspectives agree that socialization is needed for culture and society values to be learned |
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| The unique human capacity of being able to see ourselves "from the outside"; the views we internalize of how others see us |
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| A term coined by Charles Horton Cooley to refer to the process by which our self develops through internalizing others' reactions to us |
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| Hebert Spencer: Societies go through a natural evolution, from lower to higher forms. Sociology should not guide social reform |
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| 3 Main events which set stage for the emergence of sociology |
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Industrial Revolution
Social upheaval of revolutions
Imperialism (empire building) |
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| Pure; analyzing some aspect of society, publishing their findings in books or sociology journals |
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| Using sociology to solve actual problems |
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| Requires theories that can be tested by research |
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| When did sociology emerge? |
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| Mid-1800s, when social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas |
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| Looked at racism,first African American to get PhD from Harvard. Taught sociology with whites, but couldn't eat or stay in same hotels |
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| Social reforms- One of the first women to receive the Nobel Peace Prize. Founder of Hull-House in Chicago- took in anyone who needs refuge. Co-founder of ACLU- 8 hour work day, laws against child labor |
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| Taking the role of the other |
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| Mead--> Putting yourself in someone else's shoes; understanding how someone else feels and thinks, so you anticipate how that person will act |
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An individual who significantly influences someone else. Children: Parents, grandparents, siblings
Teens: Peers
Adults: Spouses, parents, friends, employers |
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| Mead's 3 Stages of Role taking |
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1) Imitation Stage (1.5-2 years): children imitate physical-verbal behavior, but don't understand
2) Play Stage (3-4 years): imagine world through someone else's eyes
3) Game stage (4+): multiple roles considered at once, anticipate others actions, there are specific rules |
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| The norms,values, attitudes, and expectations of people "in general"; the child's ability to take the role of the generalized other is a significant step in the development of self |
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| Piaget's 4 stages of reasoning |
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| Sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage,formal operational stage |
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| (Birth-2) Our understanding is limited to directo contact- sucking, touching, listening, looking. Cannot recognize cause and effect, nor that we are separate from our environment |
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| (2-7) Develop the ability to use symbols, but don't understand common concepts such as size, speed, or causation |
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| Concrete Operational Stage |
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| (7-12) Reasoning abilities are more developed, remain concrete. Can now understand numbers, size, causation,and speed,able to take the role of another. Must have concrete examples |
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| (12+) Capable of abstract thinking, can talk about concepts, come to conclusions based on general principles,and use rules to solve abstract problems |
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| Freud's term for our inborn basic drives |
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| Freud's term for a balancing force between the id and the demands of society |
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| Freud's term for the conscience; the internalized norms and values of our social groups |
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| Mead's Concept of Self (2 parts) |
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1) The"me": self created through socialization, predictability and conformity come from the me
2) The "I": Part of self that is spontaneous, acts in extreme situations |
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| Kohlberg's Theory (Morality) |
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| Children go through four stages of morality: the amoral stage, the preconventional stage, the conventional stage,and the postconventional stage |
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| Before age 7, there is no right or wrong, just personal needs to be satisfied |
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| Ages 7-10, have learned rules and follow them ot stay out of trouble. View right and wrong as what pleases or displeases their parents, friends, and teachers. Concern is to get rewards and avoid punishment |
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| Around age 10, morality means following the norms and values they have learned |
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| Individuals reflect on abstract principles of right and wrong and judge people's behavior according to these principles |
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| A social condition in which privileges and obligations are given to some but denied to others |
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| People or groups that affect our self concept, attitudes, behaviors, or other orientations of life (family, neighborhood, religion, day care, school, peer groups, the workplace) |
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| The intended beneficial consequences of people's actions |
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| unintended beneficial consequences of people's actions |
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| anticipatory socialization |
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| the process of learning in advance an anticipated future role or status |
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| the process of learning new norms, values, attitudes, and behaviors |
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| a place that is almost totally controlled by those who run it, in which people are cut off from the rest of society and the society is mostly cut off from them |
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| A term coined by Harold Garfinkel to refer to a ritual whose goal is to remake someone's self by stripping away that individual's self-identity and stamping a new identity in its place |
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| The violation of norms, rules, or expectations |
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| The violation of norms written into law |
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| "Blemishes" that discredit a person's claim to a "normal" identity |
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| A group's usual and customary social arrangements, on which its members depend and on which they base their lives |
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| A group's formal and informal means of enforcing its norms |
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| An expression of disapproval for breaking a norm, ranging from a mild, informal reaction such as a frown to a formal reaction such as a fine or a prison sentence |
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| An expression of approval for following a norm, ranging from a smile or a good grade in a class to a material reward such as a prize |
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| Inborn tendencies (for example, a tendency to commit deviant acts) |
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| Crimes such as mugging, rape, and burglary |
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| The view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms |
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| Edwin Sutherland's term to indicate that people who associate with some groups learn an "excess of definitions" of deviance,increasing the likelihood that they will become deviant |
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| The idea that two control systems- inner controls and outer controls- work against our tendencies to deviate |
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| The view that labels people are given affect their own and others' perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into either deviance or conformity |
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| Techniques of neutralization |
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| Ways of thinking or rationalizing that help people deflect (or neutralize) society's norms |
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