Term
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Definition
| In causal attribution, the tendency for an observer to overestimate the effects of dispositional factors when making attributions about an actor's behavior but to overestimate the effects of situational factors when making self-attributions. |
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Term
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Definition
| A method of reducing the effectiveness of a persuasive message that is based on the medical model: involves giving the recipient of the message arguments against her own position and weak counterarguments (refutations against those arguments). Inoculation has been found to be a particularly effective method for reducing persuasibility. |
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Definition
| Causal attributions are often described in terms of three dimensions - internal/external (dispositional/situational): stable/unstable; and specific/global. |
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Definition
| Sherif used the autokinetic effect (the appearance that a stationary point of light is moving) to study conformity to group norms. |
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| Methods used to induce compliance in another person. French and Raven have identified six bases of social power: coercive, reward, expert, legitimate, referent, and informational. |
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Definition
| The tendency of people to not intervene in emergency situations when others are present. Bystander apathy has been attributed to three factors: social comparison, evaluation apprehension, and diffusion of responsibility. |
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Definition
| Predicts that an act of aggression reduces an individual's arousal level which then decreases the likelihood that she will act aggressively again in teh near future. The research has not been very supportive of this claim. |
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Definition
| Characteristics that have a greater impact than others on impression formation. |
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Term
| Characteristics of the Communication |
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Definition
| Several affect its persuasiveness - eg. the level of discrepancy between the positions of the recipient and the message, the order in which the two sides of an argument are presented (primacy/recent effects), and whether the message is intentionally delivered or is overheard. |
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Term
| Characteristics of the Communicator |
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Definition
| Research on attitude change has confirmed that credible communicators are more persuasive. One factor that contributes to credibility is trustworthiness. |
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Term
| Cognitive Dissonance Theory |
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Definition
| Festinger's theory of attitude change that proposes that inconsistencies in cognitions produce discomfort (dissonancy), which motivates the individual to reduce the dissonance by changing her cognitions. |
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Definition
| Proposes that prejudice may be reduced through contact between members of the majority and minority groups as long as the following conditions are met - eg. members of the different groups have equal status and power and are provided with opportunities that disconfirm their negative stereotypes about members of the other group. |
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Definition
| A state of relative anonymity that allows an individual to feel unidentifiable. Deindividuation has been associated with increases in antisocial behaviors, apparetnly becaus ethe deindividuated person's behavior is no longer controlled by guilt, fear of evaluation, or other inhibitory controls. |
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Term
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Definition
| Crowded conditions tend to enhance positive experiences and increase the unpleasantness of negative experiences. Males seem to be more stressed by crowded conditions than females and are more likely to react with increased aggressiveness. This is apparently because males require more personal space. |
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Term
| Effects of Media Violence |
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Definition
| The controversy about the effects of media violence has been fueled by research on observational (social) learnign. Although evidence to support each side - that violence either increases or decreases violence - can be found in the literature, in general, media violence dos not seem to have a cathartic effect but, instead, increases viewer aggressiveness. |
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Definition
| Research assessing exposure to violent pornography has generally found that it not only increases aggressive behavior but also promotes a greater acceptance of violence against women. |
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Term
| Elaboration Likelihood Model |
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Definition
| A cognitive theory of attitude change that distinguishes between two information processing routes - central and peripheral. Reliance on teh central route requires greater mental effort and produces longer-lasting attitude change. |
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Term
| emotion In Relationship Model |
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Definition
| Proposes that there is an innate mechanism that generates emotion in response to unexpected events that disrupt ongoing sequences of behaviors. |
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Definition
| The theory of motivation that predicts that motivation (eg. motivation to remain in a relationship) is affected by the comparison of input/outcome ratios. |
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Definition
| Lewin's theory of human behavior that describes it as a product of interdependent factors in the person and his or her physical and social environment. |
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Term
| Fundamental Attribution Bias |
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Definition
| The attribution error in which an observer tends to overestimate dispositional causes and underestimate situational causes when making attributions about an actor's behavior. |
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Term
| Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis |
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Definition
| The theory that aggression is always motivated by frustration. Revised version predicts that the frustration leads to aggression in the presence of aggressive cues. |
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Term
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Definition
| Predicts that liking is related to the pattern rather than the amount of rewards - specifically, people tend to be most attracted to individuals who show increasing liking for them and to be least attracted to individuals who show decreasing liking for them. |
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Term
| Gender Differences in Affiliation |
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Definition
| The research has shown that females ordinarily spend more time than males engaged in conversation, are more likely to talk to people of the same sex, and may affiliate more tahn males do in public places. |
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Term
| Heterosexism and Sexual Prejudice |
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Definition
| As defined by Herek, heterosexism refers to "an ideological system that denies, denigrates, and stigmatizes among nonheterosexual forms of behavior, identity, relationships, or community"; and sexual prejudice refers to "negative attitudes based on sexual orientation, whether the target is homosexual, bisexual, or heterosexual" |
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Definition
| Refers to the tendency to see a relationship between variables that are not actually related. |
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Definition
| A method of learning in which assignments must be completed by teams with each team member being assigned a different piece of the project. it has been found to improve intergroup relations, cooperation, and self-esteem; also improves academic achievement, especially for members of minority groups. |
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Definition
| A learned expectation that one cannot control negative life events, which leads to apathy and dperession; associated with internal, stable, and global attributions. |
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Definition
| The research shows that a minority can influence the majority by maintaining a consistent (but not dogmatic) position. |
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Term
| Misery Loves Miserable Company |
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Definition
| Refers to Schachter's conclusion that people like to affiliate with those in similar circumstances (ie. miserable people prefer to affiliate with other miserable people). |
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Term
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Definition
| Lewin distinguished between three motivational conflicts - approach/approach; avoidance/avoidance; and approach/avoidance. The latter involves a goal that has both positive and negative aspects and is particularly difficult to resolve. |
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Definition
| Milgram. Controversial research which evaluated participants' willingness to obey a high-status individual even when doing so seemed to harm another person. |
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Term
| Overjustification Hypothesis |
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Definition
| The notion that, when people are externally rewarded for a task they previously found intrinsically interesting, their intrinsic interest in the task will decrease. |
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Term
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Definition
| Zimbardo. Prison simulation study which demonstrated that people alter their behaviors to fit their assigned roles. |
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Term
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Definition
| Rosenhan. Research that demonstrated the roles of the social context and labeling on impression formation. Once admitted to a mental hsopital, Rosenhan's pseudopatients were viewed, especially by hospital staff, as mental patients even though they did not exhibit any abnormal behaviors. |
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Definition
| The tendency to resist being influenced or manipulated by others, usually by doing the opposite of wheat is desired or expected. |
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Definition
| Sherif's research at a boy's camp that demonstrated that the most effective way to reduce intergroup hostility is having the members of the groups cooperate to achieve a mutual (superordinate) goal. |
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Term
| Schachter & Singer's Epinephrine Studies |
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Definition
| Research on the perception of emotion that showed that there are no physiological differences between emotions and that the peception of emotion depends on a combination of pphysiological arousal and a cognitive label for that arousal. |
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Term
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Definition
| Cognitive structures that organize past information and experience and provide a framework for processing and understanding new information and experiences. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refers to the need for and ability to manage the impression that others form of us. High ones are most concerned about their "public self" and, consequently, strive to match their attitudes and behaviors to the situation. in contrast, low self-monitors are guided primarily by their own beliefs and values and attempt to alter the situation to match their "private self." |
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Term
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Definition
| The theory that individuals make attributions about their own attitudes and behaviors on the basis of observations of their behaviors and other external cues. |
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Term
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Definition
| In causal attributions, the tendency to attribute one's successes to internal factors and one's failures to external factors. |
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Term
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Definition
| Predicts that people prefer accurate information (ie. info that is consistent with one's self-evaluations). |
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Term
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Definition
| the theory that individuals use other (usually similar) people as sources of comparison to evaluate their own attitudes and behaviors. |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of interpersonal relationshps that focuses on the magnitude of costs and rewards. |
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Term
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Definition
| They type of learning that occurs simply as the result of observing the behavior of a model; used to explain the acquisition of aggressive behaviors (eg. the effects of media violence). |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory of attitude change that predicts that we have three "categories of judgment" by which we evaluate persuasive messages - a latitude of acceptance, a latitude of non-commitment, and a latitude of rejection - and that we are most likely to be persuaded when teh message is within our latitude of acceptance. |
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Term
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Definition
| Goals that can be achieved only when individuals or members of different groups work together cooperatively; they have been found useful for reducing intergroup conflict. |
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Term
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Definition
| A theory about current, less blatant forms of racism that reflect a combination of anti-African-American attitudes, strong support for traditional American values (eg. the work ethic), and a belief that African-Americans violate those values. |
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Term
| Theory of Planned Behavior |
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Definition
| Predicts that attitudes are accurate predictors when the attitude measure assesses all three components of the behavioral intention - the person's attitude toward engaging in the behavior; what the person believes other people think he or she should do, and the person's perceived behavioral control. |
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Term
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Definition
| Often reduces aggressiveness, especially when it comes from a person with high status or power. |
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Term
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Definition
| The tendency to remember interrupted and unfinished tasks better than completed ones. |
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