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| Use of different methods to investigate a psychological phenomena. Evidence consistently found by using different methods provides strong support to claims about a given brain function. |
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• Standards of conducting a research experiment are enforced by an Institutional Review Board.
• For humans: do no harm, physical or psychological
• Informed consent and debriefing
• For animals: the findings of the research study must outweigh the any suffering of animals. |
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| researchers examine the effects of various types of drugs on a person’s behaviors. |
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| cognitive neuropsychology |
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| researchers examine the behaviors and high level processes (attention, memory, language) of patients with unique brain damage in different contexts, or with different stimuli. (Case studies) |
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| Researchers perform experimental manipulation of stimuli presented to human participants and then observe the parts of the brain that gain a boost in physiological activity. (Use of advanced brain imaging methods) |
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| researchers compare the behavior of different species (animals and humans) in order to understand the evolution, genetics and adaptiveness of behaviors. |
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| Specific areas of the brain perform specific functions. Makes processing of information more efficient. |
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| damage of specific areas of the brain can lead to specific behavioral or cognitive deficits. Assume that a particular part of the brain is responsible for a specific behavioral or cognitive function. |
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| Electrical recordings and neural stimulation |
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Definition
| Electrical probes are inserted to specific populations of neurons |
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| creation of organisms (i.e. mice) that lack a specific gene that can cause consequences on the animal’s development and behaviors. |
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1)The gene to be knocked out is isolated. A new DNA sequence is engineered which is very similar to the original gene except that it is changed to make it inoperable. Usually, the new sequence is also given a marker gene, a gene that normal mice don't have and that transfers resistance to a certain antibiotic or a selectable marker.
2)From a mouse, stem cells are isolated and these can be grown in vitro (i.e. on a dish solution).
3)The stem cells from step 2 are combined with the new sequence from step 1. This is done via electroporation (using electricity to transfer the DNA across the cell membrane). Some of the electroporated stem cells will incorporate the new sequence into their chromosomes in place of the old gene.
4)Using the antibiotic from step 1, those stem cells that actually did incorporate the new sequence can be quickly isolated from those that did not. |
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| Limits of Gene Knockout Method |
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Definition
• Most behaviors are determined by multiple genes
• Eliminating one gene usually alters the expression of other genes
• Gene expression is dependent on experience which may be altered by the absence of a missing gene.
• Key assumption in mapping the living brain
• During a cognitive activity, there are parts of the brain that are working harder in comparison to other parts of the brain. Therefore it will use up more energy (glucose), oxygen, and generate more activity (more electrical activity) in relation to other brain parts. |
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| Subtraction method (Signal averaging) |
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Definition
| baseline activity for a specific task is recorded (control stimulus), neural activity for an experimental task is recorded (experimental stimulus). Subtract the brain activity during the baseline task from the experimental task. |
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| Electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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Definition
| Use electrodes placed on the scalp to measure brain electrical activities. Used to diagnose epilepsy. |
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| Event-related potential (ERP) |
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Definition
| an average measurement of EEG’s that is directly the result of a thought or perception experienced by participant. Highlights specific timing involved in cognitive process, but can only approximate the location of the brain activity. |
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| Digital geometry processing is used to generate a three-dimensional image of the inside of an object. This is taken from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images based around a single axis of rotation. |
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| Positron-emission tomography (PET) scan |
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Definition
Metabolism of glucose (via mild radioactive isotope marker (2 deoxyglucose) and a special scanner)
provide good identification of regions of the brain associated with a cognitive process, but it does not provide the specific timing of the brain activity. |
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| Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) |
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Definition
Scanner measures the oxygenated bloodflow in the areas of the brain.
provide good identification of regions of the brain associated with a cognitive process, but it does not provide the specific timing of the brain activity. |
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| Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) |
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Definition
| using a powerful magnetic field to inactivate patches of neurons. |
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Definition
| It receives, processes and stores information from the environment. It coordinates behaviors of different parts of the body. It consists of the brain and spinal cord. |
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| Automatic behaviors originating from the spinal cord that do not require conscious effort (Knee-jerk reflex) |
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| Peripheral nervous system |
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Definition
| sends the input to CNS and executes the output of the CNS. |
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| Afferent nerves (sight, smell, hearing, taste, touch): |
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| carry out orders of the CNS in muscles, glands and internal organs. |
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| Voluntary (somatic) nervous system |
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Definition
| nerves that permit conscious control of our actions. Controls most muscles of the body. |
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| Autonomic Nervous system (ANS) |
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Definition
| Regulates blood vessels, glands and internal organs. We have a lack of conscious control. |
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| Sympathetic nervous system |
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Definition
| increase the activity of ANS. Uses up energy. |
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| decrease the activity of ANS. Conserves energy. |
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| involved in sleeping, waking, & dreaming. |
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| control over automatic body functions (e.g., heart rate, breathing) |
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| Involved in the sense of balance and coordinates the smooth and precise movement of muscles. Involved in remembering specific simple skills and acquired reflexes. |
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| a deep structure in the brain that is involved in the regulation of emotion, irritability, locomotion, arousal, attention and startle. It has widespread connections with the midbrain and prefrontal cortex. |
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| relays sensory and motor information to the proper areas of the brain and the nervous system |
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| involved in the survival drives of the individual (hunger, thirst, emotion, sex). Regulates body temperature, ANS, and sleep wake cycles. |
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| Controlled by the hypothalamus and this secretes hormones that have global effects on the body functions. |
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| a massive feedback loop of deep brain structures that receives and processes input from cerebral cortex, then sends output to the motor cortex to coordinate muscle movements. Components: striatum, globes pallidus, subthalmic nucleus, substantia nigra. |
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Definition
| involved in initially determining the emotional importance of the situation or information. |
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| Enables the formation of new memories. |
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| bundle of nerve fibers connecting the 2 cerebral hemispheres |
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| Cerebral cortex (Gray matter) |
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Definition
| the layer of neurons on the cerebrum (cell bodies of neurons) |
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| Layers of the Cerebral cortex |
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Definition
• Mostly made up 6 layers of pyramidal (pyramid-shaped) and stellate (star-shaped) neurons.
• The complexity of the neural connections in the cerebral cortex allows for the dynamic ability of the brain to process info from the environment. |
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Definition
| Processing of visual information |
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| Integrates information from the world. It contains the somatosensory cortex that receives information about pain, touch, pressure and temperature from the body. It also processes spatial representation |
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processing of auditory information, memory, perception, & emotion.
• Language dominance – left hemisphere
• Spatial-visual/nav dominance – right hemisphere |
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Definition
| Contains the motor cortex and premotor cortex that initiate voluntary muscle movement. Also involved in short-term memory and speech production. |
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| Prefrontal cortex (of the Frontal lobe) |
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Definition
| this serves in advanced planning, self-control, and other higher order cognitive functions. It coordinates the activity of various parts of the brain. |
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| Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) |
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Definition
Sections of the DNA contain the code to create the proteins necessary for cellular functions.
Double helix configuration |
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Definition
| the activation of the structural and operator genes in DNA. |
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Definition
| Controls the activation of operator genes. These are influenced by signals received by the cell form the environment. |
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| controls the activation of a structural gene or a group of structural genes (“unzip” DNA so it can be copied) |
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Definition
| they contain the information necessary for the creation of proteins to build and maintain the organism (hair, brain, bone cells). |
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| copies a section of the DNA for specific proteins. Proteins are produced in the ribosomes by combining amino acids via the RNA code. |
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| Contains the genetic material within the cell nucleus. There are 23 pairs of chromosomes (46 total chromosomes) contained in the nucleus. Each chromosome strand is made up of DNA. |
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| A process of cell division where each of the 23 chromosome pairs are separated into different cells. |
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| The sex cells (sperm cells, egg cells) that contain the genetic material needed for sexual reproduction processes. |
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Definition
1)Pairs of chromosomes line up parallel to each other.
2)DNA replication (exact copies)
3) Chromosomes cross over each other.
4)The crossed over chromosomes separate from each other and are distributed into different cells. |
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Term
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Definition
Deletion: sections of the DNA code are removed.
Duplication: sections of the DNA code are repeated.
Inversion: sections of the DNA code are rearranged.
Insertion: a section of DNA code is transferred to another chromosome. |
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Definition
| the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. |
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Definition
| Neuronal migration is the process where the neurons travel along glial fibers to the correct region where the cell bodies of these neurons should be located on the brain (layer of the cortex). Similar to climbing a ladder. Neuronal migration occurs between the 7th and 16th weeks of pregnancy (critical period of brain development). |
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Term
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Definition
The process by which neurons send out axons to reach the correct targets. Axons often follow very precise paths in the nervous system to properly connect the different brain regions with each other .
Growing axons have a highly active structure at the growing tip called the growth cone, which detects the extracellular surroundings for chemical signals that instruct the axon which way to grow. |
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| Netrins, Slits, Ephrins & Semaphorins |
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Definition
chemicals that can either attract or repel the growth cone during the axon’s development.
The growth cone is also influenced by Neutrophins (Growth Factors) and Neurotransmitters (i.e. GABA) |
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| Sensitive Period of Development |
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Definition
| A sensitive period is a window of time in when development is maximized if an event occurs, and the constraints are less available. |
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| traits that occur in one form or another, but never in combination (height, eye color, depression, schizophrenia) |
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| a trait that appears in the first generation offspring (Assuming that there are initially pure- breeding lines). |
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| a trait that appears in about ¼ of the second generation offspring. |
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| the genetic background of an organism. |
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| the observable (behavior and appearance) traits of an organism. This is expressed by the genetics interacting with the environment (e.g., diet, experiences, etc.) |
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| Selective breeding of maze “bright” and maze “dull” rats |
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Definition
Tyron (1934) trained a heterogeneous group of rats to navigate a complex maze.
Rats that performed well (bright) were mated together.
Rats that performed poorly (dull) were mated together.
By the eighth generation, there was almost no overlap in the success of “bright” and “dull” rats in performing the task.
An enriched environment can overcome the “dull” genes of rats and improve performance on the maze navigation task (Cooper & Zubek, 1958). |
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| excitable and nervous, overreact to simple things. |
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Definition
minimal crying, easygoing and extroverted.
20% of infants are in the extremes. 80% of infants lie between the extremes. Biologically based temperaments predict later personality traits and stress responses, but depends on how extreme the trait was during childhood. |
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| The statistical probability that a trait is due to the genetic similarity or genetic differences among individuals in a group (the contribution of genetic differences to phenotypic differences among individuals). |
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| Twins that share 100% of genes (One egg was fertilized by 1 sperm) |
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Twins that share 50% of genes (Two eggs was fertilized by 2 sperms)
Researchers have found that identical twins share a greater heritability of personality and intelligence traits than fraternal twins (Bouchard & Pedersen, 1998).
Estimated heritability correlation values that range between +0.40 and +0.60 on the personality traits of identical twins (Similarity in gestures, moods and mannerisms).
Estimated heritability correlation value of +0.70 on the intelligence of identical twins.
The high heritability rate of intelligence and personality traits is still present in identical twins that were raised apart. |
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Term
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Definition
Symptoms include mental retardation, vomiting, seizures, hyperactivity, and hyperirritability diagnosed in children. There are high levels of phenylpyruvic acid in their urine.
Individuals lack the production of an enzyme for the conversion of the amino acid phenylalanine to tyrosine (production of dopamine).
PKU is transmitted via a recessive gene carried by both the mother and father. |
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| Specific Language Impairment (SLI) |
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Definition
People who have difficulty learning grammar, such as consciously adding –s to the end of nouns and they don’t automatically distinguish different grammatical categories (verbs, nouns etc.) as most 3 year olds would do (Gopnik, 1999).
SLI is transmitted via a dominant gene carried by either the mother or father. (One parent that shows the symptoms of SLI) |
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Definition
| Abnormal dominant gene that causes rapid, complex, jerky movements of limbs. |
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| Possible genetic defect in chromosome 6 causing difficulty in reading with intact auditory comprehension. |
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Definition
extra chromosome 21 is created causing abnormal intellectual development.
There are genetic aspects to depression, anxiety disorders, alcoholism, and schizophrenia because they tend to run within families.
There are genetic aspects to depression, anxiety disorders, alcoholism, and schizophrenia because they tend to run within families. |
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| amputees feel the presence of a missing limb. ‘body image’ constructed in mind, phantom limb evidence as such. felt via reorganization of sensory areas of the brain. |
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Definition
| ability to see when in fact blind (e.g., aware of motion, but unable to describe shape. ability to detect things, but not be aware of them. vision is not entirely seeing (i.e., visual awareness is not synonymous with vision). |
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| pain felt as the result of a reorganization of sensory pathways in the brain. brain isn’t receiving signals from phantom limb, thus it looks for stimulation elsewhere, in turn causing pain. |
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| normal eyesight, yet half of visual world is unavailable. Concerns parietal lobes (e.g., when right side is damaged, the person’s left visual field is impacted). Not only a sensory problem but a problem of conscientiousness. |
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| convinced that certain individuals and/or structures are “imposters” when in fact they are real is actuality. Involves the temporal lobes – vision then elicits an emotional response (i.e., via the amygdala). Message gets to temporal lobe, but does not get to the amygdala because fibers connecting the two structures are damaged by trauma. Therefore, emotions are conflicted with one’s perception. Appears to fix itself. |
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| can be triggered by seizures originating in the temporal lobes. Apparently triggers an increased emotional awareness to their surroundings. Myriad of emotions may only be understood as having some sort of a religious explanation. Connections btwn. Sensory centers in the temporal lobes and amygdala – when seizures occur, it could be an increased awareness as to the [perceived] emotional significance of events/environment. Parts of temporal lobe might be conducive to religious belief(s). Can enrich one’s life, thus: should we treat it? |
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