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| public speaking. During the Golden Age of Greek civilization, Aristotle and other leading intellectuals taught rhetoric to citizens of Athens. |
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| speeches that debate public policy in legislative settings |
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| speeches that celebrate special occasions |
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| tendency of any nation, race, or religion to believe that its way of seeing and doing things is right and proper and that other perspectives and behaviors are incorrect. |
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| moral dimension of human conduct--the way we treat others and the way we want to be treated. |
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| responsible knowledge (of topic) |
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* knowing the main points of concern
* understanding what experts believe about them
* being aware of the most recent events or discoveries concerning them
* realizing how these points affect the lives of listeners |
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| distorting the meaning of a quote for the purpose of your point |
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| presenting the ideas or words of others as though they were your own, without acknowledging where the ideas or words came from |
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| tendency to believe that our thoughts, dreams, interests, and desires are or should be shared by others. |
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| communication orientation |
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| concentrating of your message and your audience, not on yourself. (and your anxieties, worries etc.) |
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| stories that make characters come to life, ass interest and authenticity to speech |
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| a comparison of something with something else, to give your topic meaning and relatability |
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| illustrate points, clarify uncertainty, make events seem authentic. |
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| statements offered by experts or other respected people. Can strengthen the authority of your speech |
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| help turn assertions into well documented arguments |
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| same as fact, compare percentages, averages etc. |
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| logical pattern that develops a subject according to the natural or customary divisions. |
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| help you move from one point to another |
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| feeling of sharing or closeness that can develop between speakers and listeners. Typically occurs when you believe someone is like you--that you have the same outlook on life or that you share similar backgrounds or values. |
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| first rung on the ladder, listening in which we respond to the sounds of our aural world |
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| point of transtition between being aware of sounds and finding meaning in them. Focusing on message, understanding speaker's verbal and non-verbal language, and interpreting message. Voluntary, can choose whether or not to listen this way |
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| listening and trying to see things from the speaker's point of view, even though we may not agree with them |
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| aesthetic phase of listening process. Involves responding to the beauty of a message. I.e. eloquence, simplicity and balance of a speech. Very relevant when listening to ceremonial speeches. |
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| major goal of educational process. Analyzing and evaluating the content of a message |
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| Involves an active search for the value that messages may have for our lives. Motivated listening, presumes that all messages may have value. |
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| words that set off such powerful emotional reactions that they dominate the meaning of a speech, derail your comprehension and defeat critical listening. |
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| when you don't process all incoming information, only hear what you want to hear, unconsciously screen the speaker's words |
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| means that you see positions similar to your own as being closer to it than they actually are. Happens when listeners have a strong positive attitude towards a speaker or topic. |
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| occurs when you see positions different from yours as being more distant than they actually are. i.e. if you are a staunch liberal you may think anything conservatives say will differ from what you believe even if that's not true. |
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| need for food, water and comfort. Speeches involving these (about clean air, fast food, etc) arouse listeners |
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| need to feel protected from harm. Speeches about something that threatens our safety get listener's attention. |
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| values of friendship and family ties. Speeches that make people feel included in a cause, whether it be for our nation or a group, are effective. |
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| sense of sharing the fate of others...can connect all humans, thus speakers can ask for reform by appealing to our sense of identification with women in Afghanistan for example |
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| need for self-respect, prestige, pride, success and the respect of others. Speeches that show audience how they can improve themselves and enhance chances for success are effective |
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| needs to develop our identities and realize our potential. Speeches with tales of self-actualization work because people listen and hold the stories up as a model for their own lives |
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| making broad generalizations about men or women based on outdated assumptions. |
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| involves making gender references in situations in which the gender is unknown or irrelevant. use of "he" or "man" |
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| racism expressed subtly or covertly "in our neighborhood, we believe in family values" |
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| adding an irrelevant reference to gender, ethnicity, race or sexual preference when none is needed. "Thompson, the hispanic engineer" "Martina, the lesbian tennis player" |
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| preliminary tuning effect |
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| the speeches presented immediately before yours create an atmosphere in which you must work. |
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| to persuade, to inform, etc. |
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| states precisely what you want your listeners to understand, believe, feel or do |
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| central idea of the speech, summarizes in a single sentence the essential meaning or message of your speech |
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most comprehensive understanding of your topic that you can develop on the time available for prep.
includes: main issues, what respected authorities say, latest developments, related local applications. |
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| must evaluate credentials of both the source and the sponsor of the information |
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| look for additional links to other websites or citations of print documents that relate to the topic. |
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| measures information's freedom from bias or personal feelings and the degree to which you can trust it. |
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| date of posting or revising material |
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| breadth and depth of information provided |
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| citing the words or ideas of others, can reinforce or interpret the facts and figures in your message. Also can bring humanity to subject |
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| comes from people who are qualified by training or experience to speak as authorities on a subject. |
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| when people speak out against their apparent self-interest. Listeners give high marks for character and honesty to those who feel compelled to tell the truth, despite their own agendas. |
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| wisdom of ordinary people. Public opinion polls, how "the people" feel about a topic. |
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| lay testimony that is used in support of a person, practice, product or institution |
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| associates your message with the words of a respected public figure. |
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| useful when material is brief, exact wording is important or language is especially eloquent |
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| to restate in your own words what others have said. You must site the source though |
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| ties together subjects from the same realm of experience, such as football or soccer. |
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| combines subjects from different realms of experience. For example, comparing building a house to building a speech |
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| depends on simplicity, balance and order. A concept that comes from the Gestalt psychologists. Well organized speeches |
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| to achieve simplicity, limit the number of main ideas in speech and keep your wording direct and to the point. |
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| means that the major parts of your speech--intro, body, conclusion--receive appropriate development. |
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| speech that follows a consistent pattern of development from beginning to end. Starts by introducing subject and purpose, continues by developing main ideas in body, and ends by summarizing and reflecting. |
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| most important ideas of your message, the points of focus that will advance your specific purpose. |
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| show your listeners how your ideas connect, help them focus on the meaning of what you have already discussed and prepare them for what's to come |
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| specific type of transition that reminds listeners of the points you have covered before you move onto the next part of your message. Especially helpful in cause-effect and problem-solution speeches |
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| question that does not prompt a direct answer, but rather arouses curiosity and starts listeners thinking about the topic. |
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| occurs when people overcome the personal and cultural differences that separate them and share thoughts and feelings as though they were one. |
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| suggests that all statements at a given level (I's and II's, A's and B's) should be of similar importance. |
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| requires that material descend in importance from the general and abstract main points to the concrete and specific subpoints, and subpoints related to them. |
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when successive sentences or phrases follow the same pattern of wording in order to emphasize an idea.
ie We need to reform at the national level
We need to reform at the state level
We need to reform at the local level
But first, we need to reform ourselves |
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| invests a subject with the speaker's personal connections and emotions..... INTENSIFIES FEELINGS! |
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| technical language that is specific to a profession. You wont be understood if you use jargon in front of an audience outside that profession. |
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| mixing up words that sound alike "he is the very pineapple of politeness" meant PINNACLE. or "I must have had ambrosia" meant amnesia |
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brief, concentrated form of comparison that is implied, unexpected and sometimes startling....when you use a metaphor you PULL A RABBIT OUT OF A HAT!
bow wave example |
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treats inanimate subjects, such as ideas or institutions, as though they had human form or feeling.
"Goddess of Liberty" in Tiananmen Square |
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arranges different or opposing ideas in the same or adjoining sentences to create a striking contrast. Magnifies the speaker as a person of vision, leadership and action. Suggests they have a clear, decisive grasp of options.
"With the proper instruction, environment, and encouragement, Special Olympians can learn not only sports skills, but life skills"
"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country" JFK |
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reverses the expected order of words in a phrase or sentence to make statement more memorable and emphatic.
"Ask not"
WHAT IS THE DIFF BTWN THIS AND ANTITHESIS |
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| repeats the initial sound in a closely connected pattern of words |
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| expanded conversational style |
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| talking with listeners, not at them. Direct, spontaneous, colorful and tuned to the responses of listeners. A bit more formal than everyday conversation but still natural. |
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closeness between speaker and listeners. Likableness dimension of ethos. encourages listeners to open mind up to you and be influenced by what you say!!!
TO ACHIEVE IMMEDIACY!
reduce actual distance
smile, eye contact
gestures
use voice to express emotion |
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| BAD. i.e. um, well, okay, you know.....vocal fillers, may indicate nervousness or be when the speaker is collecting thoughts but in general are distracting and indicate that the speaker lacks confidence in themselves or their message. |
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the study of how humans use space.
distance
elevation |
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| distance between speakers and listeners affects their sense of closeness or immediacy. Greater the distance harder it is to achieve identification. BUT if too close, makes people uncomfortable. |
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| also affects closeness between speaker and listeners. Standing above seated listeners sometimes evokes "power position" and discourages identification |
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| used in impromptu speaking, develops each point and keeps speaker from rambling. state the Point, give a Reason or Example, then Restate the point. PREP |
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| "speaking off the cuff"...when you have little or no time for preparation or practice. Sometimes in prepared speeches you have impromptu moments, but other situations such as class or on the spot presentations use impromptu as dominant mode of speaking |
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| prepared and practiced, but not written out or memorized |
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| read to an audience form either text or teleprompter. Lose eye contact, and IMMEDIACY!! |
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written out, committed to memory and delivered word for word.
problems: many people do not write in oral style, delivery sounds stilted or sing-songy, inhibits adapting to feedback, get too caught up with memorizing and forget about COMMUNICATING!!! MOST IMPORTANT THING!! |
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| power of informative speaking to influence perceptions can prepare listeners for later persuasive messages. Depending on a persons point of view (optimistic about teaching vs. pessimistic) you will be primed to respond differently to a later message (i.e. urging you to become a teacher). |
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| media has power to influence what we think about by allotting more time to certain subjects than others. Informative speaking has the same power--what you choose to include influences what audience feels is important. |
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| repeated sounds, words or phrases attract attention!!!!! alliteration, for example |
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| people are attracted to NEW AND UNUSUAL things. if you have a fresh way of saying or presenting something, even disinterested listeners will tune in. NOVEL way of saying things "just the tip of the wasteberg" "New Deal" |
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| anything that moves attracts attention. Gesturing and moving towards audience attract attention, so does language that evokes movement/activity "until--until--until" when describing earthquake. |
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| things that relate to our specific needs attract attention. Audience application. cigarette butts collected, mentioning specific area. MAKE THEM CARE! |
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| making your listeners remember and use the info you give them is crucial. Therefore, make it relevant, repetitive, catchy and thus MEMORABLE! |
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| appropriate for speeches that develop topics within a physical setting. Yellowstone park speech. Helps listeners visualize setting, provides listeners with an oral map. |
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| follows the sequence of important events in the history of a subject. |
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| when you explain subjects that have natural or customary divisions (4 types of...) |
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| points out the similarities and/or differences between subjects or ideas. Each similarity or difference becomes a main point. "Changes in how women are portrayed in advertising" |
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| art of gaining fair and favorable consideration for our points of view. Ethical persuasion=grounded in sound reasoning, and is sensitive to the feelings and needs of listeners. |
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| consideration of all sides of an issue before a decision is made. |
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| knowing about a problem, paying attention to it, and understanding how it affects our lives. First step in persuasive process. |
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| second phase of persuasive process. Listeners must grasp what you are telling them and be MOVED by your ideas and understand how to CARRY OUT your proposals. |
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| third stage of persuasive process. listeners should AFFIRM YOUR MESSAGE AND AGREE WITH YOU! |
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| fourth stage. getting listeners to act on your argument (sign a petition, raise hands, voice agreement) May require furhter use of emotional appeals |
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| final stage, when listeners integrate new attitudes and commitment with their old beliefs or values. Ideas must fit comfortably within their belief system, make them realize that this action is consistent with their values and THEN THEY'LL TAKE LASTING ACTION YESSSSS |
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| when you propose too much change so audience reacts by opposing your position even more strongly. |
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| great expectation fallacy |
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| to hope for a major change on the basis of any single persuasive effort. Must be patient with reluctant listeners, move them one step at a time. |
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| acknowledging your opposing arguments--shows that you respect and acknowledge position BUT not accept it. |
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| making those you persuade resistant to counter-attacks because you show them how to answer arguments. MULTISIDED presentation achieves this. |
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| when change shows up only after listeners have had time to integrate the message into their belief system. |
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| must be developed when building strong arguments. May be based on evidence, may tap into our emotional reactions, may be based on our social heritage or may call on personal leadership qualities of speaker. logos, pathos, ethos, mythos |
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| appeals to reason. grounded in strong evidence, make sense, etc. |
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| appeals to personal feelings such as fear, pity, and anger...examples and narratives do this |
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| when you respond to personal qualities of speaker (competence, character, good will, dynamism) |
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| hard evidence in the form of facts, statistics and expert testimony |
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| conclusion speaker draws from data...primarily inductive |
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| principle that justifies the movement from data to claim. Authorizes us to draw conclusions from a similar case, deductive element of model ***?? |
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| additional justification to strengthen to warrant |
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| acknowledge conditions under which the claim may not follow. Ethical persuaders have a duty to acknowledge these "unless...." |
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| terms that express the force of the claim "probably, almost certainly, in all likelihood" |
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| first convinces listeners that there is a problem and then shows them how to deal with it. |
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| motivated sequence design |
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practical, step-by step approach when speakers wish to move from awareness through enactment in single speech.
arouse attention, demonstrate need, satisfy need, visualize results, call for action |
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| assuming that is something happens after the event, it was caused by the event. confused association with causation....i.e. superstitions |
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