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Definition
| The persistence of learning over time through storage and retrieval of information |
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| Information Processing requires three things |
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Getting Information into the brain
Automatic and Effortful |
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| Getting information back out when you need it |
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Sensory
Short term
Long term |
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initial recognition of a stimulus, at first you don’t see it but then you think about it afterwards (lasts 3-5 seconds)
Iconic/Echoic |
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Definition
| requires attention; we can manipulate it and use it for something (mostly for conversation… lasts 20 seconds) |
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Definition
| goes into storage, something we need to memorize (has no time limit, in theory, you can hold vast amounts of information) |
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meaning/imagery
Rehearsal/spacing/organizing |
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| Iconic/Echoic Sensory Memory |
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Definition
vision based/Sound based
Shows our brain what is important and what is not. If it isn’t, it is moved into short term memory |
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| Short term memory capacity |
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Definition
| Decays quickly. Most can only remember 7 plus or minus 2 items (5-9 items at once) |
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| Long term memory capacity |
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Definition
| storage that occurs for an indefinite amount of time and holds an unlimited amount of information |
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Definition
| Long term memory for habits and skills |
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Term
| Declarative-Semantic memory |
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Definition
| long term memory for idea/general concepts (driving home, you don’t have to think about it, concept of having a table in your kitchen, Defining a car) |
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| Declarative-Episodic memory |
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Definition
| Long term memory for details/experiences directly related to you only (Describing the table in your kitchen, specific experience had of driving a car) |
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Definition
| The neural base of learning and remembering (the strengthening of neural pathways, due to exposure to a stimulus) |
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Definition
| easier to RECOGNIZE the right answer than to RECALL it because there are CUES to remind us |
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| Three things that aid in retrieval |
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| returning to home town brings back memories that you would otherwise not remember |
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Definition
| level of alertness, if you study while intoxicated you should come to the exam intoxicated |
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Definition
| when were in a bad mood we tend to recall bad memories and vice versa (it is easier to recall a memory if you are in the same mood you were in when you learned it) |
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| Forgetting-happens in these areas: |
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Definition
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| if we never encode the information |
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we never store the information
“Forgetting Curve” neural connections are weakened, retention drops then after 3 years levels off |
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Definition
| Proactive interference or Retroactive interference |
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| prior learning disrupts recall of new information (learning someone’s name from last semester stops the teacher from learning someone’s name from this semester) |
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Definition
| new learning disrupts recall of old information (if you park in the same place every day, and one day you park in a different parking old. You go to the old parking lot instead of the one you parked in today) |
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Definition
| as memory fades, we incorporate false memories into events |
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Definition
| it is difficult to tell them apart from real memories, they often feel real |
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Definition
| inability to store new information in long term memory (50 first dates) |
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Definition
| inability to retrieve long term memories from the past |
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memories (usually traumatic) that are too painful to re-experience are covered up
Freud thought this, but he is wrong. We usually remember traumatic experiences vividly |
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Definition
| certain hormones (adrenaline, cortisol) appear to enhance encoding of memories. |
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| you remember where you were during important events (9/11 or Michael Jacksons death) |
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| All the mental activities associated with processing, understanding, remembering and communicating |
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| ideas that represent a category of objects, events, or activities |
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| best example that incorporate the features of a category (general example of a concept) |
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Trial and error
algorithm
heuristic |
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| one solution after another is tried until a successful one is found (random order) |
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| very specific step procedures for solving a problem |
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educated guess based on prior experiences, helps narrow down possible solutions for a problem. Aka “rule of thumb”
-they are efficient but can lead to misclassifications or poor decision making |
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Definition
| sudden realization of the solution to a problem (occurs spontaneously) |
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| Problem Solving Obstacles |
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Definition
Mental set
confirmation bias
fixation
functional fixedness |
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Term
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Definition
| a particular way of thinking about something (a way that has been successful in the past, but not necessarily successful now |
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Definition
| we think two things are associated but they are not (old people cannot drive but we ignore other old people that drive well) |
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| inability to see a problem from a new perspective |
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| tendency to think of thins only in term of their usual functions (a box for shoes can ONLY be used to hold shoes in) |
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| Representativeness Heuristic |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| what is the likelihood? After a plane crash, what is the likelihood of someone going on a plane (even though flying is the safest way to travel) |
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| no creativity is used to solve a problem |
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| creativity is used to solve a problem “thinking outside of the box” |
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| Spoken,written,signed words used to communicate |
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| Understanding written word |
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| set of basic sounds (a syllable th, a, ch) |
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| smallest unit of language that carries meaning (C A T) |
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| test that shows if children have reading disibilities |
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| Characteristics of language |
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Definition
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| system of rules that enables us to communicate with others |
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| used to derive meaning (has a meaning, it was easy to process |
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| has no meaning, the grammar is bad (difficult to process) |
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| influence eachother (are reciprocal) |
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| expands language expands your thought; hypothesis that language determines the way in which we think about this (you learn someone’s language and you learn about their culture) |
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| Animals and Thinking/Language |
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Definition
| animals display insight, understand numbers tools and cultural innovations (similar to a 2 year old human child) |
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Definition
Ability to learn from an experience to acquire knowledge
Intelligence is stable, heritable, can be measured, and made of multiple domains! |
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Term
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Definition
proposed that intelligence is compromised of ones overarching ability that underlies other abilities
g-general ability
s-specific ability
Factor analysis-identified clusters of test items |
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| History of Intelligence testing |
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Definition
Early measures (e.g. muscle size, head size, reaction speed, etc.)
Alfred Binet first intelligence test, based on mental age (compared to other children, at what level does this child function)
Lewis Terman Revises Binet’s theory, makes a Standford-Binet Test |
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Term
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Definition
| Mental age (how you do on tests given) divided by Chronological age(actual age) times one hundred = IQ |
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| Abuse of intelligence testing |
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Definition
| Ellis Island 1905: test immigrants intelligence when they get off the boat, if they were not anglo saxon they did not do well on the test because the test is in English (causes limits on immigration b/c they are not smart enough but this is not true) |
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| Modern Intelligence testing |
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Definition
Bell Curve average IQ is 100 (65% of populationg is btwn 85-115)
David Wechsler first to make adult IQ test (more widely used then standford binet test)
WISC-IV for children
WAIS-IV for adults |
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Definition
Reliability consistent results
Validity does the test measure what it claims to measure? |
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Term
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Definition
| Wechsler test is standardized |
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Definition
| there has been an average increase of over three IQ points per decade |
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| Aptitude vs. Achievement Tests |
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Definition
Aptitude predict ability to learn a new skill (SAT)
Achievement reflect what you have learned (unit exam) |
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Term
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Definition
| each (genes and environment) contributes 50% of the population variance in intelligence (heritability estimates predict within group variation not between group variation) |
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Definition
African Americans and Hispanics-score lower than whites on IQ tests
Hernstein and Murray-The bell curve (explains heritability-through genes)
Kamin’s Cornfield analogy-influence of stereotypes (explains environment) |
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| Reasons for Biases in IQ tests |
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Definition
Who Developed the tests white upper middle class men
Cultural Bias bias in the tests, rather than “true” racial difference in IQ (test items may be understood differently by people of different cultural backgrounds. If someone lives in Brazil they will not know geography of the United States)
Stereotypes and Stereotype Threat self confirming concern that one will be evaluated on a negative stereotype |
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Definition
Needs and wants are met
Intrinsic/Extrinsic |
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Definition
| enjoyment/interest for yourself (studying a topic because you’re interested in it) |
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| performing something for a reward—money, grades, social approval, etc. (someone showing up to work because they get a paycheck) |
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Definition
Drive-reduction
Arousal
Incentive
Humanistic Approaches – Maslow Heirarchy of Needs |
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Term
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Definition
behavior arises from physiological needs that causes an internal drive
Primary (survival needs) vs. Secondary (acquired) Drives |
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Term
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Definition
| people are motivated to have an ideal level of tension that they seek to maintain by increasing or decreasing stimulation (sensation seekers versus test anxiety) |
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Term
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Definition
| beliefs and values impact motivation (if you cant eat anymore but you are full, but you see your moms pumpkin pie and eat it anyway) |
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Term
| Humanistic Approaches – Maslow Heirarchy of Needs |
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Definition
-has a positive view of human behavior
-believes there are several levels of needs one must strive to meet before achieving the highest level of personality fulfillment |
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Term
| Self-Determination Theory |
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Definition
| giving external award to someone who has intrinsic motivation |
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Definition
| A response of the whole organism |
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Definition
| Communication and translating motivational states into behavior |
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| James Lange Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
| motional experience stems from the physiological sensations that are triggered by emotion-arousing stimuli (see a snarling dog attention focuses, heart races feel fear) |
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| Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
| emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger physiological responses and emotional experiences (if you show a cat an angry dog, they still feel fear) |
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Term
| Schacter’s Two Factor Theory of Emotion |
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Definition
1. Be physiologically aroused 2. Cognitively label the arousal
People are given the same stimulants but feel different emotions when they are put in different situations
How it's different from the other two-- its your subjective interpretation of arousal that determines your emotions |
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| Two dimensions of emotions |
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Definition
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Definition
Charles Darwin the face communicates emotions that are common across different cultures
Humans have a tendency to attend to which type of face fist?
Do these things occur cross culturally? yes |
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Term
| The role of the limbic system and emotions |
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Definition
Emotions are regulated by the limbic system thalamus(relay station)
hypothalamus(hunger/sleep) hippocampus(memory) amygdala(regulation of fear)
particularly the amygdala-regulates fear, damage to this area affects detection/experience of fear |
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Definition
| Natural(Harsh sounds) Vs. Learned(Mean Animals) |
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Term
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Definition
Catharsis Hypothesis----
What is it? Do we feel better after “releasing” anger?
What is the evidence for it?
What can we do instead of venting anger?
Wait it out
Deal with it constructively (journaling, discuss your anger, let it go) |
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Term
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Definition
Feel good-do good phenomenon
Subjective well-being
How does mood and happiness change over time?
Mood changes over time of day, but they balance out over time
What makes us happy? Money??? Other factors??? |
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| Psychoanalytic Theory (aka Psychodynamic Theory) |
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Definition
| First theory of personality—childhood sexuality and unconscious motivations influence personality |
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Sigmund Freud
3 structures of personality |
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| reality (wants to help the id but does what is acceptable) |
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| moral principle “the conscience” |
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Term
| Personality Development stages |
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Definition
Oral
Anal
Phallic (Oedipus Conflict)
Latency
Genital |
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Definition
| (0-18 months) biting, sucking |
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Definition
| (18-36 months) toilet training |
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| Phallic (Oedipus Confict) Development stage |
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Definition
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| Latency Development stage |
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Definition
| (6-puberty) id is dormant |
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| genital development stage |
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Definition
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Term
| What if a person gets stuck in development stages? |
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Definition
Fixation ego or superego cannot regulatre drive for pleasure
Unresolved Conflict fixation results in this. |
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Term
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Definition
Repression
Regression
Reaction Formation
Projection
Rationalization
Displacement |
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Definition
| banish the painful thought down into the unconscious (abuse) |
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Definition
| retreat to an earlier stage of development |
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| form the opposite reaction to an anxiety provoking stimulus (a hidden desire for men makes someones behavior homosexual) |
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Definition
| attribute thoughts to other people (jen is attracted to her sister husband but she says her sisters husband is attracted to her) |
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Definition
| intellectualize a solution to the anxiety (if I don’t east breakfast now I can eat more later) |
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Definition
| disguise your impulse by directing it at a more acceptable target (if your at work and your boss is yelling at you, instead of yelling at your boss you go home and fight with your wife instead) |
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| Weaknesses of Freud’s Theory |
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Definition
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Definition
Personal Growth and Self actualization
Self-concept (real vs. ideal)
Unconditional Positive Regard
Conditional Positive Regard |
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| Personal Growth and Self actualization |
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Definition
| reaching your full potential as a person |
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| Self-concept (real vs. ideal) |
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Definition
Real self: self image
Ideal self: perception of what you think you should be |
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| Unconditional Positive Regard |
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Definition
| giving positive regard with no strings attached |
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| Conditional Positive Regard |
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Definition
| you only give positive regard when someone does what you want them to do (when you get rewarded) |
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| Criticism of Humanistic Theory |
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Definition
| Unclearly defined concepts, overly optimistic |
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Term
| Modern personality theories |
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Definition
Trait perspective
The Big 5 |
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Term
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Definition
characteristic pattern of behavior or a disposition to feel and act in a certain way
How many? 2-7 |
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Definition
Openness-curious vs simple
Conscientiousness-organized vs impulsive
Extraversion-outgoing vs shy
Agreeableness-accommodating vs. stubborn
Neuroticism-nervous vs calm |
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Definition
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| Social Cognitive Perspective |
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Definition
Reciprocal Determinism
Self-efficacy
Locus of Control – External and Internal
Expectancy |
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