Term
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Definition
| Study of how the body works to maintain life |
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Definition
| How Physiological processes are altered in disease or injury |
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| Compares similar organisms and the physiology of their bodies |
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| Father of Physiology *First to apply phycical laws to our understanding of the functionf of the human body. |
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| physician *authority until the Renaissance *applied basic experimental methods to experiment |
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| Began the era of modern physiology *first to demonstrate the role of the heart and its pumping mechanisms |
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| Father of modern Physiology |
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| Wrote The Wisdom of the Body *Used the word homeostasis |
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Definition
| Maintenance of fairly constant internal conditions *Maintained by negative feedback loops |
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Definition
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Term
| Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Definition
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Term
| Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
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Definition
| Cranial and spinal nerves (all the other nerves in the body) *Derived from 31 pairs of cranial nerves under the brain or from the spinal nerves |
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| Cells of the Nervous System |
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Definition
| Neurons and Supporting cells |
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Definition
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| Supporting cells (glial cells) |
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Definition
| Help maintain homeostasis *Five times more common than neurons |
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| Multipolar, Bipolar, Pseudopolar |
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Definition
| Types of neurons based on structure |
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Definition
| Center of the cell, contains the nucleus, contains nissl bodies (ribosomes) |
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Definition
| Extensions of the cytoplasm, trasmit electrical signals towards the soma, shorter than axons, receptive ends, contain neurotransmitter receptors, voltage and ligand gated ion channels |
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| Longer and thicker than dendrite, neurons usually have just one |
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| rounded ends of the axon, cite where neurotransmitter is stored waiting on an impulse |
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Definition
| Groups of cell bodies in the CNS |
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Definition
| Group of cell bodies in the PNS |
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Definition
| Moves soluble compounds toward nerve endings via rhythimic contractions of axon; flow is always form cell body to ends |
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Definition
| Moves large and insoluble compounds bidirectionally along microtubules; viruses and toxins enter CNS this way |
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| Sensory/Afferent, Moter/Efferent, Association/Interneurons, Autonomic motor neuron |
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Definition
| Functional classifications of Neurons |
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Definition
| Neurons conduct impulses into CNS, all types of sensory info is carried by the same kind of transmission; converts the impulse into sensory impulse |
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Definition
| Neurons carry impulses out of CNS to the body to a muscle or a gland |
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Definition
| Integrate NS activity, Located only in the CNS in the spinal cord or tracts of brain; help integrate all the information |
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Definition
| Carry output to smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands |
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Definition
| junction between two cells |
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| Schwann and satellite cells |
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Definition
| Supporting/Glial cells in the PNS |
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Definition
| Myelinate PNS axons, form neurilemma, form the myelin sheath |
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Definition
| between the Schwann cells allow the faster passage of electrical impulses |
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Definition
| Repair processes, form of stem cells |
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Definition
| multilayered lipid and protein covering derived from the cell membrane of Schwann cells in the PNS and oligodendrocytes in the CNS |
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Term
| properties of myelination by Schwann cell |
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Definition
| myelinates 1mm of 1 axon by spiraling membrane round and round axon, 50-100 layers of Schwann cell, inner layer electrically insulates |
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Definition
| outer, nucleated layer of Schwann cell, housekeeping properties of cell lies here |
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Definition
| Oligodendrocytes, microglia, astrocytes, ependymal cells |
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Definition
| Responsible for myelinating the axons of CNS neurons making "white matter"; each is involved in myelination of several CNS axons |
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Definition
| results from scarring due to demyelination, autoimmune disease that results in the progressive destruction of the myelin sheaths in the CNS |
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Definition
| Derived from monocytes, phagocytic cells |
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Definition
| Largest, most numerous supporting cell in the CNS |
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Definition
| specialized epithelial cells lining the central wall and ventricles of the CNS, produce cerebrospinal fluid |
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Definition
| Requires the complex interplay of neurolemma, neutrophins, and Schwann cells, occurs more readily in the PNS than in CNS |
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| Why regeneration does not occur in CNS |
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Definition
| Oligodendrocytes are not removed and secrete inhibitory proteins, no neurolemma so no regeneration tube, astrocytes produce scarring the physically prevents regeneration |
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Definition
| chemical messengers that promote fetal nerve growth, required for the maintenance survival of many adult neurons, important in regeneration. |
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Definition
| Most numerous and largest glial cell in CNS, formation of the Blood-Brain barrier, prevents leakage of K+, convert glucose to lactate for aerobic metabolism, recycling of neurotransmitters, regulates adult neurogenesis |
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Term
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Definition
| Capillaries are anatimically differentiated, held together by tight junctions (complex of transmembrane proteins), insures only molecules that are selectively transported |
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Term
| Resting membrane potential (RMP) |
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Definition
| The measured potential difference across the membrane in an non stimulated cell, At rest all animal cells have a negative internal charge: K+ inside, Na+ outside, inside is -70 |
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Term
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Definition
| A change in the extracellular concentration of one or more of the contributing ions, or a change in the membrane permeability of one or more of the contributing ions |
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Term
| Excitability/Irritibility |
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Definition
| The ability to respond to stimuli by altering membrane permeability thus changing their membrane potential |
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Definition
| Occurs when MP becomes more positive due to the influx of positively charged ions |
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Definition
| MP becomes more negative than RMP due to the efflux of positive charges or the influx of negative charges |
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Term
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Definition
| MP returns to RMP due to the efflux of positive charges following a depolarization event |
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Term
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Definition
| occur when the membrane permeability for specific ions is altered by the opening and closing flow of ion-specific membrane channels |
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Term
| Voltage-gated (VG) channels |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Cycle of depolarization and repolarization and is the basis of the nerve impulse, wave of MP change that sweeps along the axon from the axon hillock at the base of the soma to the terminal boutons of the collateral axon branches |
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Term
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Definition
| degree of depolarization of the RMP required to activate VG channels and initiate an action potential (-55mV) |
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Term
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Definition
| At threshold potential VG Na+ channels open, changed MP to +30 mV |
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Term
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Definition
| VG Na+ channels close, VG K+ channels open, electrochemical gradient drives K+ outward, repolarizes axon to RMP |
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Term
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Definition
| When MP reaches threshold, an AP is irreversibly fired, you can increase the frequency but not the amplitude of AP in a single axon |
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Term
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Definition
| Functional connection between a neuron and another cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Depolarization flows from presynaptic into postsynaptic cell through channels called gap junctions, found in smooth and cardiac muscles, brain, and glial cells |
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Term
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Definition
| formed by connexin proteins |
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Term
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Definition
| separates terminal bouton of presynaptic from postsynaptic cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Action potentials reach axon terminal, Ca2+ in cytoplasm activates calmodulin, activates protein kinases leading to fusion of vesicles with plasma membrane, pore forms in fused vesicle and exocytosis releases neurotransmitter |
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Term
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Definition
| NT (ligand) diffuses across cleft, binds to receptor proteins on postsynaptic membrane, chemically regulated ion channels open |
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Term
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Definition
| Excitatory postsynaptic potential, depolarization channels cause |
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Term
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Definition
| Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, hyperpolarizing channels cause |
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Term
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Definition
| Specific chemicals produced by neurons that are released in a regulated way in order to communicate with an adjacent cell |
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Term
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Definition
| Made from non polar pre-structure with an acetyl group, most widely used NT, NT at all neuromuscular junctions, used in brain, in ANS can be excitatory or inhibitory |
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Term
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Definition
| Ion channel runs through receptor, opens when ligand (NT) binds |
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Definition
| Found in skeletal muscle at motor implate and on neurons that synapse with ACh releasing neurons, formed by 5 polypeptide subunits, opens when 2 AChs bind, permits diffusion of Na+ in and K+ out of postsynaptic cell, produces EPSPs |
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Term
| G Protein-Operated Channels |
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Definition
| Made of alpha, beta and gamma polypeptides, activates when alpha separates, receptor is not part of the ion channel, ligand gated molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| Mushroom toxin can bind receptor, binding of 1 ACh activates G-protein cascade, opens some K+ (hyperpolarization), closes others causing depolarization, ACh binding causes IPSPs, in cardiac muscle cells the G proteins open the K+ channel causing EPSPs |
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Term
| Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) |
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Definition
| Inactivates Ach, terminating its action; located in cleft |
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Term
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Definition
| Serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine |
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Term
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Definition
| derived from tryptophan, involved in regulation of mood, behavior, appetite, and cerbral circulation, LSD is strucutally similar |
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Term
| SSRIs (serotonin-specific reuptake inhibitors) |
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Definition
| include antidepressants (Prozac, Zolof, Paxil, Luvox), block reuptake of serotonin, prolonging its action |
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Term
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Definition
| Involved in motor control and emotional reward, schizophrenia treated by anti-dopamine drugs, receptors can be bound by cocaine and alcohol |
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Term
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Definition
| caused by degeneration of dopamine motor system neurons |
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Term
| Nigrostiatal dopamine system |
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Definition
| regulated fine muscle activity |
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Term
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Definition
| ring of neurons around the brain stem that are important in our behavior reward system |
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Term
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Definition
| Used in PNS and CNS, sympathetic NT in PNS, affects general leve of arousal in CNS, amphetamines stimulate NE pathways |
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Term
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Definition
| Glutamic acid, aspartic acid, glycine, GABA |
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Term
| Glutamic acid/aspartic acid |
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Definition
| Major CNS excitatory NTs, NMDA receptors have to bind both at the same time, memory storage |
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Term
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Definition
| inhibitory NT, opens Cl- channels which hyperpolarize, strychnine blocks glycine receptors, inhibits antagonistic muscle fibers |
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Term
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Definition
| (gamma-aminobutyric acid) most common NT in brain, inhibitory, opens Cl- channels |
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Term
| Polypeptide NTs (Neuropeptides) |
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Definition
| Cause wide range of effects, not thought to open ion channels, neuromodulators, involved in learning and neural plasticity |
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Definition
| Neuropeptide that promotes satiety following meals |
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Definition
| Neuropeptide that is a pain NT |
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Term
| Endorphins, enephalins, and dynorphins |
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Definition
| Neuropeptides, analgesics, effects are blocked by naloxone (opiate antagonist), andogenous opiods (poppy plants) |
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Definition
| Most common neuropeptide, inhibits glutamate in hippocampus, powerful stimulator of appetite |
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Term
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Definition
| neuropeptides, similar to THC in marijuana, only lipid NTs, have analgesic effects |
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Term
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Definition
| gaseous NTs, act through cGMP second messenger system, NO causes smooth muscle relaxation, viagra increases NO, causes small vessel to enlarge to increase blood flow, neither bind to receptor |
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Term
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Definition
| Graded in magnitude, have no threshold, cause depolarization, summate, have no refractory period |
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Term
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Definition
| Takes place when EPSPs from different synapses occur in postsynaptic cell at the same time |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs because EPSPs that occur closely in time can sum before they fade, frequency of neurotransmitter release from a postsynaptic neuron |
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Term
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Definition
| Repeated use of a synapse can increase or decrease its ease of transmission |
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Term
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Definition
| GABA and glycine produce IPSPs, IPSPs dampen EPSPs making it harder to reach threshold |
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Term
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Definition
| Occurs when one neuron synapses onto axon or bouton of another neuron inhibiting release of its NT |
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Definition
| integration and control of neurological activity |
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Definition
| tracts of nerves that relay sensory and motor information between the brain and somatic structures |
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Definition
| Received input from sensory neurons concerning incoming stimuli, association neurons integrate sensory and motor activity in order to maintain homeostasis, perform learning and memory so that behavior can be modified to aid in survival, directs activity of motor neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| consists of neuron bodies and dendrites (unmyelinated tissue) |
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Definition
| Consists of axon tracts (myelinated) |
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Term
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Definition
| Adult brain weighs 1.5 kg (almost 3lb), Contains 100 billion neurons, received 20% of blood flow to body |
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Term
| Embryonic development - Week 3 |
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Definition
| day 14-15 gastrulation occurs, cells of embryonic disc develop into 3 layers |
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Term
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Definition
| (embryonic disc) invaginates forming the endoderm which develops into the epithelial lining of the GI and respiratory tracs, circulatory system and other viscera |
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Term
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Definition
| (embryonic disc) develops into all skeletal, cardiac, and most smooth muscle, bone and blood cells and other connective tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| (embryonic disc) embryonic tissue that covers the surface of the embryo and eventually develops into epidermis of skin and nervous system |
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Definition
| induced by the notochord that results in thr formation of the neural plate, neural folds, and neural tube (week 3) |
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Definition
| forms from invagination along the dorsal midline forming a groove in the ectoderm by 20th day, fusion of the ectoderm forms a hollow neural tube that becomes the CNS |
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Definition
| develop where the neural tube fuses, become ganglia of PNS |
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Term
| 4th week of embryonic development |
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Definition
| all of the major organs begin to appear |
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Term
| 3 swellings form on the neural tube |
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Definition
| these become the forebrain (Prosencephalon), midbrain (Mesencephalon), and hindbrain (Rhombencephalon) |
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Term
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Definition
| Brain develops rapidly, head size increases, Forebrain separates into telencephalon and diencephalon, midbrain does not divide, hindbrain forms metencephalon and myelencephalon |
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Term
| Ventricles and Central canal |
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Definition
| remnants of hollow part of neural tube, contain cerebral fluid (CSF) |
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Definition
| Telencephalon (cerebrum), Diencephalon, Mesencephalon (midbrain), Mentencephalon (hindbrain), Myelencephalon |
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Definition
| largest part of brain (75-80% of mass), responsible for higher brain functions, right and left hemispheres interconnected by corpus collosum |
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Definition
| Composed of association fibers between gyri in same hemisphere, Commissural fibers from one hemisphere to another, Projection fibers from descending and ascending tracts |
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Term
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Definition
| 2-4 nm layer of unmyelinated cell bodies that overlays the myelinated axon tracts or white matter and the basal nuclei |
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Definition
| Highly convoluted with numerous elevations (gyri), depressions (sulci), and crevices |
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Definition
| organized into 5 lobes based on the anatomic position of large grooves and fissures that define the boundaries of the lobes |
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Definition
| Separates the Frontal lobe from the parietal lobe |
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Definition
| separates the fronal and parietal lobes from the temporal lobe |
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Definition
| of the frontal lobe, is a prominent gyrus anterior to the central sucus that is involved in motor control |
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Definition
| of the parietal lobe, receives sensory information from cochlea |
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Definition
| contains auditory centers; receives sensory info from cochlea, also links and processes auditory and visual info |
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Definition
| responsible for vision and coordination of eye movements |
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Definition
| Plays role in memory encoding, integrates sensory info with visceral responses, coordinates cardiovascular response to stress, implicated in nicotine addiction |
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Term
| X-ray computed tomography (CT) |
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Definition
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Term
| Positron-emission tomography (PET) |
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Definition
| used to examine brain metabolisma dn blood flow, drug distribution |
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| Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) |
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Definition
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| Electroencephalogram (EEG) |
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Definition
| measures electrical activity of cerebral cortex, used to diagnose epilepsy and brain death |
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Term
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Definition
| Alpha, beta, theta, delta |
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Definition
| recorded from parietal and occipital lobes with person awake, relaxed, eyes closed |
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Definition
| are strongest from frontal lobes; evoked by visual stimuli and mental activity |
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Definition
| come from temporal and occipital lobes, common in newborns, indicate severe emotional stress in adults |
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Term
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Definition
| are from cerebral cortex, common during adult sleep and awake infants, indicates brain damage in awake adults |
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Term
| Basal Nuclei(basal ganglia) |
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Definition
| Distinct masses of cell bodies located deep inside cerebrum, function in control of voluntary movement, neurons regulate the motor output initiated by the upper motor (corical) neurons of the pre-central gyrus |
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Term
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Definition
| refer to those cells whose soma are located in the cerebral cortex, axons complete motor circuits between the cortex, the basal nuclei, the thalmus, and ultimately the cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| Claustrum, corpus striatum |
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Term
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Definition
| Lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus), and Caudate nucleus |
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Term
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Definition
| activated by excitatory NT glutamate released by cortical neurons, release the NT GABA which inhibits neurons in the thalamus, the thalamic neurons complete the circuits by releasing excitatory NTs at synapses with cortical neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| Nucleus found in the midbrain, contains both GABA-releasing and Dopamine-releasing neurons that help to regulate voluntary motor, GABA projects to the Thalamus, Dopamine projecto the basal nuclei in the corpus striatum |
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Term
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Definition
| refers to specialization of each hemisphere for certain functions |
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Term
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Definition
| each controls movement on opposite side of body and receives sensory info from opposite side of body |
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Term
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Definition
| communicate through the corpus callosum |
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Term
| Motor output and Sensory input |
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Definition
| tavel tracts the decussate (cross-over) so that motor output initiated in one hemisphere controls the effectors on the contralateral side of the body and somatesthetic sensations received by neurons in post central gyrus on contralateral side of brain |
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Term
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Definition
| Rather than one being dominant, each hemisphere appears to be specialized to perform certain tasks while the other hemisphere is specialized to perform different functions that supports or compliments the other |
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Definition
| specialized in language abilities and analytical skills |
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Definition
| specialized for visuospatial activities, recognition of patterns, part-whole relationships, creative abilities; artistic, music composition |
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Definition
| Areas of brain known mostly from aphasias, speech and language disorders due to brain damage |
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Definition
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Definition
| involved in language comprehension |
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Definition
| Originate largely in hypothalamus and limbic system, include aggression, fear, feeding, sex, and goal-directed behaviors |
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Definition
| Ability to recall previous events, a form of survival learning |
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Term
| Cerebral hemispheres, hippocampus, amygdala |
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Definition
| parts of brain associated with memory |
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Term
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Definition
| (memory loss) studies reveal separate short and long term memory systems |
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Definition
| Most animals do; even some protists |
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Definition
| recalling of specific facts and events |
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Definition
| requires biochemical events that result in LTP |
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Definition
| critical for acquiring new memories and consolidating short into long-term memory |
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Definition
| Crucial for fear memories |
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Definition
| higher order processing and planning occur |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Left-medial temporal lobe |
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Definition
| seems to be speicalized in storing verbal memories |
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Term
| Right medial temporal lobe |
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Definition
| specialized for non verbal memories (visual) |
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Term
| Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) |
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Definition
| Increased excitability of a synapse after high frequency stimulation, Glutamate activates AMPA and NMDA post synaptic receptors in hippocampus, glycine or serine coactivate NMDA opening Ca2+ channesl, Ca2+ levels increase causing NT release, form of synaptic learning |
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Term
| Neurogenesis in Hippocampus |
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Definition
| Crucial for learning and memory, hippocampus contains neural stem cells, stress causes hippocampus to shrink |
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Term
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Definition
| located at base of cerebral hemispheres, relay center thru which all sensory info passes to cerebrum, plays role in level of arousal |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains choroid plexus (system of capillaries) which secretes CSF, also contains pineal gland which secretes melatonin, involved in sleep cycle and seasonal reproduction |
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Definition
| Most important structure for homeostasis; contains neural centers for hunger, thirst, and temp; regulates sleep, emotion, sexual arousal, anger, fear, pain, and pleasure, controls hormone release from anterior pituitary, produces ADH and oxytocin, coordinates sympathetic and parasympathetic actions |
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Term
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Definition
| Divided into anterior and posterior lobes; posterior lobe stores and releases ADH and oxytocin (made in hypothalamus and transported |
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Term
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Definition
| produces releasing and inhibiting hormones that control anterior pituitary glands |
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Term
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Definition
| Body's daily rhythms, regulated by SCN (suprachiasmatic nucleus) of hypothalamus; master clock adjusted daily by light from eyes; controls pineal gland secretion of melatonin (regulates) |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains corpora quadrigemina (4 nuclei involved in visual and auditory reflex responses), red nucleus and substantia nigra, and mesolimbic dopamine neurons |
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Term
| Red nucleus and substantia nigra |
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Definition
| involved in motor coordination; S.nigra dopamine neurons degenerage in Parkinson's |
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Term
| Mesolimbic dopamine neurons |
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Definition
| involved in reward and addiction |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains pons, cerebellum and mudulla |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains nuclei of cranial nerves that innervate the structures in the head and face; site of apneustic and pneumotaxic respiratory control centers |
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Term
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Definition
| 2nd largest structure in the brain (100 billion neurons); receives input from proprioceptors; involved in coordinating movements and motor learning |
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Term
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Definition
| Contains all tracts that pass between brain and spinal cord, many nuclei of cranial nerves, and several crucial centers for breathing and cardiovascular systems |
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Term
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Definition
| Complex network of nuclei and fibers spanning medulla, pons, midbrain, thalamus, and hypothalamus; functions as reticular activating system, sets levels of arousal of cerebral cortex to incoming sensory information |
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Term
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Definition
| Sensory info from body travels to brain in ascending tracts, motor activity from brain travels to body in descending tracts |
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Term
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Definition
| decussate so that brain hemisphers receive info from opposite sides of body |
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Term
| Pyramidal or corticospinal descending tracts |
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Definition
| descend directly without synaptic interruption from cerebral cortex to spinal cord, function in control of fine movements |
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Term
| Reticulospinal or extrapyramidal descending tracts |
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Definition
| descend with many synapses, influence movement indirectly |
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Term
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Definition
| consists of 12 pairs of nerves: 2 pairs arise from neurons in forebrain, 10 pairs arise from midbrain and hindbrain neurons, and most are mixed nerves containing both sensory and motor fibers |
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Term
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Definition
| Mixed nerves that separate next to spinal cord into dorsal (sensory fibers) and ventral roots (motor fibers); 31 pairs |
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Term
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Definition
| 8 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar, 5 sacral, 1 coccygeal |
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