Term
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Definition
| The study of how the body functions. |
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Term
| Which two organ systems of the body are most directly in control of overall function? |
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Definition
| nervous and endocrine system |
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Term
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Definition
| ability to maintain stable internal environment |
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Term
| What kind of feedback control they try to return a variable to it original state? |
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Definition
| Negative feedback control |
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Term
| What is an example of negative feedback control? |
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Definition
| Insulin increases when high blood glucose levels, so blood glucose goes back to normal. |
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Term
| What feedback control furthers changes in a variable once a change is initiated? |
|
Definition
| positive feedback control |
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Term
| What is an example of positive feedback control? |
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Definition
| having a baby. uterine contractions and pressure on cervix keep increasing oxytocin. |
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Term
| What is more common, negative or positive feedback control? |
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Definition
| negative feedback control |
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Term
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Definition
| atoms joined by chemical bonds |
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Term
| What is the difference between an anion and a cation? |
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Definition
| anion is negative charged. cation is positive charged. |
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Term
| What's the difference between solute and solvent? |
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Definition
| You dissolve the solute in solvent. (IE salt in water) |
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Term
| Describe hydrophillic, hydrophobic and amphipathic. |
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Definition
hyrdophillic likes water, polarized.
hydrophobic doesn't like water, non-polar.
amphipathic has both polar and non-polar ends on the same molecule. |
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Term
| What are the four main classes of organic molecules? |
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Definition
1.carbs
2.lipids
3.protein
4.nucleic acid |
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Term
| What are monosaccardies and what are they used for? |
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Definition
| sugar, used for energy, are polar. |
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Term
| Where do you find polysaccarides? |
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Definition
*animals- glycogen liver and skeletal muscles
*plants - cellulose (structure)
- starch (storage) |
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Term
| Which kind of lipid circulates in the bloodstream as an Energy (E) source? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the three functions of cholesterol? |
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Definition
1.percursor for steroid hormones
2.part of plasma membrane
3.circulate as HDL and LDL |
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Term
| What is difference between HDL and LDL cholesterol? |
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Definition
| LDL is bad. HDL is good - sweeps up cholesterol. exercising increases HDL. |
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Term
| Which biological compound is the most versatile and structurally diverse? |
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Definition
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Term
| How many amino acids are there? How do you distinguish one group from another. |
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Definition
| 20. The "R" group identifies them. |
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Term
| What are the three shapes a protein can have? |
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Definition
1.globular (compact)
2.fiborules (elongated)
3. mixed |
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Term
| What are the two types of nucleic acids? |
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Definition
| DNA (dioxyribose nucleic acid) and RNA (ribonucleic acid). |
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Term
| What is a nucelic acid made of? |
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Definition
| sugar (deoxyribose or just ribose), base, phospate |
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Term
| What four types of bases react with each other to form the DNA helix? |
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Definition
| cytosine and guanine. thymine and adenine. |
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Term
| What are the four general points of Cell Theory? |
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Definition
1.All organisms are made up of cells
2.new cells come from existing cells
3.all cells function the same way
4.cell cooperate together to create functions |
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Term
| What is the cell boundry? Regulates entry/exit. |
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Definition
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Term
| membrane limited site of storage and functions for DNA are carried out? |
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Definition
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Term
| The cytoplasm with solutes in it in cell? |
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Definition
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Term
| The site of ATP synthesis? |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
Where does protein synthesis take place?
Where are these structures located |
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Definition
| ribosomes. some in cytosol, some attached to ER. |
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Term
| What is the difference between granilar(rough) and agranilar(smooth) ER? |
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Definition
rough ER: has ribosomes
smooth ER: fatty acid synthesis and calcium storage |
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Term
| What does the Golgi apparatus do? |
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Definition
| Where proteins are processed and stored in secretory grancices |
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Term
| What does the cytoskeleton do? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are two functions of DNA? |
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Definition
1. Replication for cell division
2. template for mRNA synthesis and codes for amino acids. |
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Term
| What does it mean the plasma membrane has a phosopholipid bilayer? |
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Definition
| Double layer of lipids. Hydrophillic heads face out and hydrophobic tails face each other. Very stable. |
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Term
| What is cholesterol's level in the plasma membrane? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the difference between integral and peripheral membrane protein on the plasma membrane? |
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Definition
| Integral runs all the way through membrane, peripheral is either outer/inner surface. |
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Term
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Definition
| random thermal motion moves solutes from area of high to low concentration |
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Term
| Diffusion time is proportional to distance squared. This means? |
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Definition
| The farther apart cells are, the longer it takes to diffuse. |
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Term
| What kind of solutes diffuse fastest? |
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Definition
| smaller, non-polarized ones. |
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Term
| How does temperature relate to diffusion? |
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Definition
| Higher the temp, higher the rate of diffusion. |
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Term
| What is simple diffusion? |
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Definition
| solutes directly cross membrane. |
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Term
| What is facilitated diffusion? |
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Definition
| How polar and charged solutes move through channels in membrane. |
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Term
| Channels that move ions are gated and respond to what kind of stimuli? |
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Definition
| stretch, light, chemicals, pressure,voltage |
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Term
| What is active transport? |
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Definition
| Solute is moved against is concentration gradient using energy (ATP). |
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Term
| What does the Na+/K+ ATPase pump do? |
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Definition
| For every ATP used, 3 Na+ are moved out and 2K+ are moved into cell. |
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Term
| What does the Ca2+ (calcium) pump do? |
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Definition
| Moves 2 calciums out of cell for every ATP used. Low calcium inside cell. |
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Term
| What is the difference between osmotic and tonicity? |
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Definition
osmotic - concentration of solutes
tonicity - effect of those solutes on cell volume |
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Term
| Explain isotonic, hyper and hypotonic. |
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Definition
Isotonic is equalibrium, no effect on cell volume.
Hypertonic is the concentration outside the cell is greater, so the cell shrinks.
Hypotonic is concentration is less so the cell swells. |
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Term
| What is an electrical potential? |
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Definition
| the driving force for a current, created by a separation of charges. |
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Term
| What are determines resting membrane potential? |
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Definition
| Ionic concentrations difference across cell and cell's permeability to different ions. |
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Term
| Cell membrane is 10-70x more permeable to K than Na+ at resting potential. What helps establish Em? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| How is the resting membrane potential established? |
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Definition
| The moving of K+ down its concentration gradient out of the cell, so the inside of the cell is negative compared to outside. |
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Term
| What is a threshold potential? |
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Definition
| Voltage at which it changes the membrane permeability properties because it opens certain gated channels. |
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Term
| What are the three phases of an action potential and what do they do? |
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Definition
1.depolarization - equilibrium potential (Em)approaches ENa+ caused by increase in Na+.
2.Repolarization - Em returns toward EK+ because cell decreases permeability to Na+ and increases to K+.
3. Hyperpolarization - when Em is more negative than usual because activation of voltage gated channels for K+. |
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Term
| True or False? Once an action potential is reaches it threshold, its "all-or-none". |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What are refractory periods? |
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Definition
| When the membrane is less sensitive to depolarizing stimuli. |
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Term
| What is the difference between absolute and relative refractory period? |
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Definition
absolute - no action potential capability no matter how strong the stimuli (Na+ channels not reset or already open)
relative- need increased stimulus to overcome hyperpolarization (increased K+) |
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Term
| List the organization of nervous system. |
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Definition
| CNS and PNS. Under PNS, afferent and efferent. Under afferent, somatic and visceral. Under efferent, somatic and autonomic. Under autonomic, para and sympathetic. |
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Term
| What is the difference between afferent and efferent. |
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Definition
| Afferent is incoming info, efferent is going out info. |
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Term
| What is the difference between sensory and visceral inputs under afferent divsion of PNS? |
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Definition
Sensory- classic 5 senses, aware
visceral - not aware: bp, ph, Co2 levels... |
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Term
| What is the difference between somatic and autonomic? |
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Definition
somatic - innervates skeletal muscles
autonomic - innervates cardiac and smooth muscles. |
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Term
| What is the irregularly shaped part of a neuron that contains the nucleus and organelles? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are branched extensions of cell body that receive input? |
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Definition
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Term
| What is another name for the axon hillock, where the axon begins? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where is action potential propogated along in a neuron? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What is the site of neurotransmitter storage and release in a neuron? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What determines how fast an action potential is carried along an axon? |
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Definition
| The bigger the axon diameter and more myelinated, the faster. |
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Term
| What is the difference between chemical and electrical synapses? |
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Definition
Chemical - unidirectional, synaptic cleft, NT, takes a little time.
Electrical - bidirectional, no synaptic cleft, no NTs, fast!, rare in NS but common in endocrine glands, cardiac muscle, etc. |
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Term
| What are the three ways NT (neurotransmitters) are cleared in chemical synapses? |
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Definition
1. reuptake by pre-synaptic cell
2. diffuse away
3.enzymatic breakdown |
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Term
| What kind of NT does the neruomuscular junction release to the motor end plate? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What is the difference between EPSP and IPSP (excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potential)? |
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Definition
| One EPSP stimulus moves membrane potential toward threshold, but can't quite reach it; need multiple to. IPSP same concept just move membrane potential away from threshold. |
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Term
| What is the difference between temporal and spatial summation? |
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Definition
temporal- same input for multiple times.
spatial- inputs to different parts of neuron |
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|
Term
| What are the three functions of muscle? |
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Definition
1.force and movement
2.regulation of organs and organ system
3.communication |
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Term
| What are the three types of muscle tissue? |
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Definition
1.skeletal
2.smooth
3.cardiac |
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Term
| Which 2 out of three muscle tissues are striated? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is skeletal muscle attached to bone by? |
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Definition
|
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Term
| What innervates skeletal muscle? Voluntary or involuntary? |
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Definition
| alpha motor neurons of somatic NS. voluntary. |
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Term
| What is smooth muscle used for? |
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Definition
| Forms hollow organs such as bladder, blood vessels, etc. |
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Term
| What innervates smooth muscle? |
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Definition
| autonomic N, - may have pacemakers |
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Term
| What is cardiac muscle innervated by? |
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Definition
| autonomic nervous system, but heart has built in pacemakers. |
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|
Term
| What is the connective tissue that surrounds the muscle belly? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| How is skeletal muscle structured? |
|
Definition
| muscle - muscle fibers - myofibrils - sarcomere - thick and thin filaments. |
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Term
[image]
Where is the H(M) band, A band and I band?
|
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Definition
H(M) band is the gap btween actin.
The I band is gap from myosin to z-line.
The A band is the length of one whole actin.
 |
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Term
| What is the smallest functional unit of muscle? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the sliding filament theory? |
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Definition
| Distance between z-lines, H(M) and I band shorten and A band stays the same when contracting. The thick and thin filament slide past each other. |
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Term
| What is cross-bridge cycling? |
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Definition
| The globular head groups of myosin (thick filament) bind to binding site on actin (thin filament) using ATP. ADP one head and Phospate on other. |
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Term
| How does calcium play a role in skeletal muscle contractions? |
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Definition
| Calcium binds to troponin, which removes tropomyosin blocking the binding sites for the globular heads on actin. As long as calcium is high, cross bridge cycles form. |
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Term
| What release and reuptakes calcium in skeletal muscle cells back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum? |
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Definition
release - action potential moving along t-tubules
reuptake - Ca2+ ATPase on SR |
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Term
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Definition
| The muscle neuron and the muscles fibers it innervates. |
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Term
| What is the difference between quantal summation (recruitment) and temporal summation (tetanic)? |
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Definition
quantal - the stronger the stimulus, the more fiber thresholds it reaches and therefore recruits.
temporal- repeated stimulation so force is constant. Due to increase of calcium, which causes more cross-bridges. |
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Term
| What is the optimal length-tension relationship for skeletal muscles? |
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Definition
| When thick and thin filaments overlap. If the thin or thick filament start overlapping EACH other or they are stretched too far apart to make cross-bridges, force decreases. |
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Term
| What are the three skeletal muscle types? |
|
Definition
1. Type I (slow-oxidative): slow to contract or fatigue
2. Type IIa (fast-oxidative): intermediate
3. Type IIb (fast-glycotic):fast to contract and fatigue |
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|
Term
| There are no z-lines in smooth muscle but dense bodies anchor thin filaments. The cells are connected by collagen. Sometimes the cells are connected by what? |
|
Definition
| gap junctions - electric signaling |
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|
Term
| What is the function of smooth muscle in terms of the hollow organs it makes up (ie blood vessels, GI tract, etc)? |
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Definition
| to change volume within organ to move contents along |
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Term
| How does skeletal and smooth muscle length-tension reltaionships differ? Why? |
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Definition
| Smooth can be stretched 3-4x longer than skeletal and still exert near max force. This is because smooth muscle has longer and more actin fibers than skeletal. |
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Term
| Which forms cross-bridges faster: skeletal or smooth? |
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Definition
| skeletal! skeletal is 100msec and smooth is 2-3 secs. smooth muscle has lower myosin ATPase activity, so it forms cross-bridges more slowly. |
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Term
| How does smooth muscle contractions occur? (hint: mutli-step process). |
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Definition
| Increase in calcium in cytosol combines with calmobulin to form Ca2+-calmobulin complex. This combines with myosin light chain kinase (inactive) to form active MLCK. This attaches to an inactive myosin head to create phosphorylated myosin that binds to actin. |
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|
Term
| How does the latch state occur in smooth muscle contractions? |
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Definition
| When the phosphate is removed from the myosin, but the myosin is still attached to actin. It produces force with little cross-bridge cycling. |
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Term
| How is calcium released and reuptaked in smooth muscles? |
|
Definition
released - influx of calcium into cell from outside cell, causes calcium in SR to release calcium.
reuptake - taken up by SR and pumped out of cell by Ca2+ ATPase pump. |
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|
Term
| What is the difference between single and multi-unit smooth muscle? |
|
Definition
Single-unit: uses gap junctions, temporal summation.
Mulit-unit: uses quantal summation, mechanically coupled via collagen |
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Term
| What is the difference between grey and white matter? |
|
Definition
grey: unmyelinated neurons
white: myelinated neurons that run in tracts |
|
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Term
| What is the difference between dorsal and ventral roots? |
|
Definition
Dorsal: afferent neurons come into spinal cord
ventral: efferent neurons leave spinal cord |
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|
Term
| Interneurons are unmyelinated and afferent/efferent neurons are. T or F? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| Cell bodies for afferent neurons are located in dorsal root ganglion and not involved in electrical stimulation. |
|
Definition
Inter and efferent neurons carry electrical information.
*FREEBIE CARD* |
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Term
| What are the three layer that make us the meninges surrounding the spinal cord? |
|
Definition
| outside to inside: (bone on the very outside) pia mater > arachnoid > dura mater. |
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Term
| What is in the arachnoid space of the meninges? |
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Definition
| blood vessels and cerebrospinal fluid |
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Term
| What are the two classifications of reflexes? |
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Definition
1.suprasegmental - involves brain
2.segmental - mediated via spinal cord (can be aware of it) |
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Term
| What is a stretch reflex? Example? |
|
Definition
example: knee jerk
end of muscles of have muscle spindle receptor that respond to stretch on it or change in length. |
|
|
Term
| What is reciprocal innervation? |
|
Definition
| opposing muscles are oppositely effected. |
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|
Term
| A reflex arc for stretch reflex is monosynaptic. This means it doesn't have an internueron, it just goes straight from afferent to efferent. T OR F? |
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Definition
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|
Term
| What is the function of inhibitory stretch reflex? What signals for it? |
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Definition
| The receptor is the golgi tendon organ, which helps prevents muscles from tearing by exerting too much force. It shuts down the muscle. Is polysynaptic. |
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|
Term
| What is the function of withdrawl/flexor reflex? what signals it? |
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Definition
| pain or tissue damage signals it and it is meant to remove limb away from pain. |
|
|
Term
| What is the function of cross-extensor reflex? |
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Definition
| used to maintain posture and used in repetitive movements. *Think about stepping on something sharp, quads contract on hurt foot side and hams contract on opposite side.* |
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|
Term
| How is motor neuron "silented" so it won't respond. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are neural systems that detect an environmental change and mediate an awareness of that change? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between general and specific senses? |
|
Definition
general: widely spread through body (ie touch)
specific: located in head (smell, vision) |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between a simple and compound sensory receptors? |
|
Definition
simple: stimulus directly touches sensory neuron (ie touch)
compound: receptor cell is separate from sensory neuron and releases NT's. (ie taste) |
|
|
Term
| Describe what the funtions of sensory receptors are. |
|
Definition
1. discriminator: respond to a specific energy level
2.transducer - convert energy of stimulus into electrical energy in neurons via ion channels |
|
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Term
| Describe the stimulus and sensation that comes from mechanoreceptor, thermoreceptor, chemoreceptor, photoreceptor and nociceptor? |
|
Definition
mechanoreceptor: change in membrane,. touch, hearing, motion.
thermoreceptor: temp. heat/cold. chemoreceptor: dissolved chems. taste/smell.
photoreceptor:light wavelengths. vision nociceptor: cell damage. pain. |
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|
Term
| How do a sensory unit and receptive field relate? |
|
Definition
| sensory unit is the sensory neuron and all it receptors. Receptive field is part of body that is innervated by sensory unit. |
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|
Term
| What is the sensory neuron pathway? 3 neurons. |
|
Definition
| first neuron goes form sensory unit to brainstem. second goes to thalamus. third goes to sensory cortex that relates with stimulus (i.e. visual cortex, etc) |
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|
Term
| T OR F? the frequency of action potentials is proportional to intensity of stimulus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the 4 determinants of sensory activity? |
|
Definition
1.receptive field overlap
2.receptive field size
3.convergence
4.lateral inhibition |
|
|
Term
| T OR F? the larger the receptive field the better the acuity? |
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Definition
| false. smaller the more acute. |
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|
Term
| Overlap of receptive field increases acutiy. T OR F? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| T OR F? Higher convergence equals higher acuity? |
|
Definition
| False. If many receptive field converge on one cortical cell, it will distinguish many stimulus as one. |
|
|
Term
| What is lateral inhibition as related to sensory receptors? |
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Definition
| The greater the stimulus on receptive field, the greater effect it has over inhibiting neighboring receptive fields so that the stimulus can be more accurately pinpointed. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between tonic and phasic receptors? |
|
Definition
Tonic: adapts slowly and incompletely, so its continous
phasic: adapts quickly and completely, so response is instant |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 modalities of the tongue? |
|
Definition
1.sweet (sugars)
2.sour(acids)
3.salty (Na+ salts)
4.bitter (toxins)
5.limami (gluthamates) |
|
|
Term
| Where is the olfactory cortex located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where are the olfactory sensory neurons located? |
|
Definition
| olfactory epithelium at top of nasal cavity |
|
|
Term
| What is the number of neurons in the olfactory neuron pathway? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three layers of the eyes and basic functions? |
|
Definition
1.sclera (white of eye) and cornea
2.choroid (vascular, pigmented,absorbs light)
3.retina (sensory component with photoreptors) |
|
|
Term
| What is the fovea centralis? |
|
Definition
| a central pit depression that contains cone cells that mediate high light, color, detected vision |
|
|
Term
| What is the optic disc (blind spot)? |
|
Definition
| axons come together to form optic nerve and where blood vessels enter/leave retina. No photoreceptors. |
|
|
Term
| What is the ciliary muscle and zonular fibers? |
|
Definition
| ring of muscle attached to lens by zonular fibers to change thickness of lens to focus on objects at different distances (aka accomadation). |
|
|
Term
| What is the pigmented muscle that form a shade over lens to regulate amount of light entering eye? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the opening in the iris through which light passes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of filling does the anterior,posterior, and main chamber have in the eye? |
|
Definition
anterior and posterior: aqueous
main: vitreous |
|
|
Term
| What is wavelength range for which humans can see? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which shape of lens directs refracted light to a focal point? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What kind of image is formed by convex lens? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What happens to the ciliary muscle and zonular fibers when the lens is focusing on an distant object? Close object? |
|
Definition
Distant: ciliary muscle relaxed, zon tight
Close: ciliary muscle tight, zon relaxed |
|
|
Term
| Which nervous system innervates iris muscles? What are the two iris muscles? |
|
Definition
| Autonomic NS. radial iris muscle increases pupil diameter. circular iris muscle decrease iris diameter. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between nearsightedness (myopia) and fasrsightedness (hyperopia)? |
|
Definition
nearsighted: image formed in front of retina, corrected with concave lens
farsighted: image formed behind retina, corrected with convex lens |
|
|
Term
| What is the age related loss of near accomodation corrected with convex lens |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the interoccular pressure due to accumulation of aqueous fluid? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Rod pigment is most sensitive to which color? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is achromatic vision? |
|
Definition
| colorless via rods, very sensitive but not detailed. |
|
|
Term
| What is chromatic vision? |
|
Definition
| color via cones. not very sensitive but highly detailed. |
|
|
Term
| How are images projected on the eye? Which side is which? |
|
Definition
| Left side of each receptive field is projected on the right side of retina and right is vice versa. |
|
|
Term
| What are some differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous system's neuron? |
|
Definition
somatic: 1 neuron from CNS
voluntary control
synapses excitatory only
autonomic:2 neurons from CNS
involuntary
excite/inhibit |
|
|
Term
| How do the parasympathetic and sympathetic N.S. differ? (list 6 things). |
|
Definition
1.P has cells in brainstem and sacrum. S has cells in thoracic and lumbar.
2.P. has long preganglionic fibers, S has short preganglionic fibers.
3.P has short postganglionic fibers, S has long.
4.P ganglia near tissue, S near spine.
5.P NT is ACH. S NT is ACH for pregang and neuroepiniphrine.
6.P is rest. S is fight or flight. |
|
|
Term
| What are the organ receptor types in parasympathetic? Sympathetic? |
|
Definition
Para: cholinergic - m1 excites. m2 inhibits
Symp: adrenergic - alpha 1 and beta 1 excite and beta 2 inhibits |
|
|
Term
| What are the three functions of the heart? |
|
Definition
1.transportation
2.regulation
3.protection |
|
|
Term
| What is the blood circulation pathway through the heart? |
|
Definition
| Superior/inferior vena cava > r. atrium > ventricular valve (tricuspid)> r. ventricle > pulmonary trunk > pulmonary arteries > lungs > pulmonary veins > l. atrium > atrio-ventricular valve (bicuspid)> l. ventricle > aorta ... |
|
|
Term
| What two things link cardiac cells together? |
|
Definition
1.intercalated discs:
2.gap junctions (electrical signal) |
|
|
Term
| What are the three layers of the blood vessel and what are they made of? |
|
Definition
1.tunica externa: fibrous layer
2.tunica media: smooth muscle for contractions
3.tunica intima: epithelial cells |
|
|
Term
| What size arteries control bp? What is site for autonomic innervation? |
|
Definition
bp - large and small arteries
ANS - arterioles |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between continous and fenestrated capillaries? |
|
Definition
cont: tightly packed wall
fen: gaps maximized exchange |
|
|
Term
| How much blood volume does the veins carry back to the heart? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What keeps blood from backflowing in vein? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What keeps blood flow moving through veins? |
|
Definition
| Skeletal muscle - just moving around |
|
|
Term
| What is the bp in the pulmonary arteries? aorta? |
|
Definition
pulmonary: 20-25/5-10mmHg
aorta:120/80 |
|
|
Term
| What is the electrical pathway of the heart? |
|
Definition
| sa node > AV node > Bundle of His > R and L bundle branches > Purkinje fibers |
|
|
Term
| where are the purkinje fibers located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at rest, what is the ejection fraction? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the ejection fraction? |
|
Definition
| amount of blood pumped from ventricles at rest. |
|
|
Term
| Where do you place leads I, II, III for EKG? |
|
Definition
| Lead I: R and L arms Lead II: R arm, L leg Lead III: L arm and leg |
|
|
Term
[image]
When does replolarization and depolarization happen for atria and ventricles? |
|
Definition
atria depol: p-wave
atria repol: hidden by QRS wave
ventricle depol: QRS wave (completely depol by t wave)
ventricle repol: t-wave |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| rapid heart rate (>100 bpm) |
|
|
Term
| What is fluttering of the heart? How does blood volume pumped change? |
|
Definition
| >200bpm. Gets to point where more heart is contracting to fast to get enough blood pumped. |
|
|
Term
| What happens during depolarization and repolarization for cardiac cells? |
|
Definition
| True resting potential near Ek, Na+ influx as depolarizing cells, small part when Na+ can't penetrate as well so ca2+ sustains depol. When ca2+ can't get in and K+ leaves, the cell repolarizes. |
|
|
Term
| What happens during depolarization and repolarization for SA node? |
|
Definition
| ca2+ and Na+ drift up membrane potential until threshold is reached. Ca2+ influx via L-type voltage-gated channels until Em is reached. Ca2+ channels closed as K+ influx repolarizes cell. |
|
|
Term
| What are two cellular mechanisms that change pace of heart? |
|
Definition
1. modulate rate of depolarization
symp vs para. causes different
times for threshold to be reached.
2. alter the levels of hyperpolarization
2. |
|
|
Term
| In cardiac muscles, what are the reasons for no temporal summation or recruitment? |
|
Definition
temporal: no ca2+ summation
recruitment: gap junctions innervate all at once. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between systole and diastole? |
|
Definition
systolic - when ventricles contracts
diastolic- ventricular filling |
|
|
Term
| what is the volume of blood expelled from one ventricle during a single heartbeat? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the equation for SV? For CO? |
|
Definition
SV= end diastolic -end systolic
CO = HR x SV |
|
|
Term
| What are the four phases of the cardiac cycle? |
|
Definition
1.ventricular filling
2.isovolumetric contraction
3.ejection
4.isovolumetric |
|
|
Term
| What diagram integrates the electrical and contractile activity of the heart? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the volume of blood pumped per minute by each ventricle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between positive and negative chronotropic effects on heart rates? |
|
Definition
positive - faster. caused by epienephrine from adrenal medulla (increases amt of Ca2+)and norepinephrine from symmp. nerves)
Negative: slower. ACH from parasymp nerves |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the force, the pressure the ventricles pump against (diastolic pressure). |
|
|
Term
| What are the three deterimants of stroke volume? |
|
Definition
1.afterload
2.force of ventricle contraction
3.end diastolic volume |
|
|
Term
| How does high bp change the cardiac cycle? |
|
Definition
| increases in time of ventricle contraction and decreased time of ejection. |
|
|
Term
| What is the volume of blood in ventricles just prior to systolic pressure? |
|
Definition
| end-diastolic volume (EDV) |
|
|
Term
| How do you increase force of ventricle muscle contraction? |
|
Definition
| Increase level of activator of Ca2+ by sympathetic system. |
|
|
Term
| T OR F? Parasympathetic system innervates cardiac myocytes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Which law states as EDV increases, stroke volume increases, the blood returned to heart, the greater the subsequent force of contraction? |
|
Definition
| Starling's Law of the Heart |
|
|
Term
| What is the effect of increasing EDV on pressure-volume relationships? |
|
Definition
| The more filling, the longer it takes to release pressure. |
|
|
Term
| What is the equation for flow? |
|
Definition
| Flow = change in Pressure / resistance |
|
|
Term
| What is the volume of blood moving past a given point per unit of time? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| An increase/decrease in radius size of blood vessels increases/decreases blood flow to what power? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the formula for CO? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where is the major site of vascular resistance? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What are the three ways to control arteriolar radius? |
|
Definition
extrinsic
paracrine
intrinsic |
|
|
Term
| What kind of extrinsic effects are one arteriolar radius? *3 of them* |
|
Definition
1. sympathetic: Norepinephrine and epinephrine act on alpha 1(constrict) and beta 2(relax)
2. parasympathetic: ACH acts on M2 to relax muscle
3. hormones: vasopresin and angiotension II - constrict |
|
|
Term
| What are some effects of paracrine on arteriolar radius? |
|
Definition
| 1.bradykins released from sweat glands cause vasodialation. |
|
|
Term
| What is myogenic control? |
|
Definition
| reflex of smooth muscle in blood vessels: increase bp stretches muscle, reflex is vasoconstriction, decreases blood flow, body then vasodialates to increase blood flow. |
|
|
Term
| What is metabolic control with blood vessels? |
|
Definition
| Metabolites in blood cause vasodialation. ex: increase co2, decreased ph |
|
|
Term
| What are intrinsic controls for blood vessel radius? |
|
Definition
| myogenic control and metabolic control |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between capillary blood pressure (CBP) and plama colloid osmotic pressure? |
|
Definition
CBP: pushes blood against vessel wall to promote filtration
P: proteins in plasma that promote reabsorption |
|
|
Term
| What does it mean if CBP is higher than Oncotic pressure? If CBP is lower? |
|
Definition
higher: filtration
lower: reabsorption |
|
|
Term
| what is swelling due to fluid in the interstitial space? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Diastolic pressure last twice as long as systolic. How do you calculate MABP? |
|
Definition
| (2 X Diastolic + systolic)/3 |
|
|
Term
| Where are baroreceptors? How do they increase heart rate and stroke volume if low bp? |
|
Definition
aorta.
stimulates vasomotor center and cause constriction. inhibits vagus, simulates SA node, and stimulates cardiac myocytes. |
|
|
Term
| What is chronically high BP? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| block beta receptors that lower heart rate and stroke volume. |
|
|
Term
| What is composed of nerve endings of axons with cell bodies in hypothalamus and secretes neurohormones into the blood? |
|
Definition
| posterior pituitary gland |
|
|
Term
| Which two hormones does the posterior pituitary glands? What do they do? |
|
Definition
1.ADH - kidney:increase H2o absorption
increase vasopressin -bp
2.oxytocin - breast and uterus |
|
|
Term
| What are the three circulating energy substrates gained from foods (carbs, proteins,fats)? |
|
Definition
glucose (used first)
fatty acids
amino acids |
|
|
Term
| What is the process to convert amino acid to glucose? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| We have variable supply of substrates, but always in need of htem. absorptive state vs. fasting state? |
|
Definition
absorptive: after meal and have surplus of nutrients
fasting: post-absorptive, in between meals when low supply |
|
|
Term
| the alpha and beta cells in the pancreas produce what? |
|
Definition
beta - insulin
alpha - glucagon |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between insulin and glucagon? |
|
Definition
insulin-uptake of substrates when high amounts in plasma. Liver= glycogen synthesis. Fat cells = fats
increase protein synthesis.
Glucagon: utilizes substrates. When low plamsa glucose. In liver = glycogenolysis - breaks down glycogen, ketone bodies, Fat cells = glucagon increase lipolysis. |
|
|
Term
| What causes Type I diabetes? |
|
Definition
| autoimmune destruction of pancreatic Beta cells. Inadequate insulin produced = low glucose uptake = high levels in blood cause extra to be peed out. |
|
|
Term
| What causes diabetes insipidus? |
|
Definition
| due to lack of ADH (ADH causing decrease in reabsp. of H20 in cells use fats as source of energy), increase lipolysis > increase fatty acids > increase ketoacidosis > increase metabolic acidosis |
|
|
Term
| What causes type 2 diabetes? |
|
Definition
| insensitivity of tissue to insulin. increase plasma glucose levels, results in extra glucose being peed out - glucouria. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increased glucose attaches to proteins > vacular complications. |
|
|
Term
| What two parts make up the adrenal gland? |
|
Definition
1.adrenal medulla: 20% of gland, secretes epi into blood
2.adrenal cortex: 80% of gland. aldoserone/corisol - steroids |
|
|
Term
| List adrenal hormones and their functions. |
|
Definition
Cortex:aldosterone - kidney (increases Na+ reabsp and bp as part of renin angliotension system)
cortisol - many organs (decrease glucose uptake, increase protein breakdown, immune system)
medulla: epi - many organs (decrease many organs, acts on arterioles)
norepi:many organs |
|
|
Term
| What is overall metabolic effects of thyroid hormones? Compare hyperthyroid vs hypothyroid state? |
|
Definition
increase metabolism and speed up everything.
Hyper:excess T3 and T4, increase everything, cardiac output
hypo: opposite - lethargy |
|
|
Term
| T3/T4 essential for development of CNS after birth. T3 enters cell to bind to nuclear receptor. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How is thyroid gland secretion controlled? |
|
Definition
| Thyroid releasing hormone (TRH) drops into hypothalamus pit system into anterior pituitary gland. increases thyrotropin which stimulates t3/t4 in thyroid gland. |
|
|
Term
| Which composition of body fluid makes up the most body weight? |
|
Definition
intracellular - 40%
extracellular - 20% |
|
|
Term
| What components make up extracellular fluid? |
|
Definition
plasma - 20%
interstitial fluid - 80% |
|
|
Term
| What are the functions of the kidneys? |
|
Definition
maintain water balance (input=output)
balance of many things
gluconeogenesis - make glucose from AAs |
|
|
Term
| what two hormones do kidneys secrete? |
|
Definition
1.erythropietin - stimulates RBC production
2.renin - NA+ conservation and BP regulation |
|
|
Term
| Why is the bp of the glomerular capsule higer (65mmHG vs 35mmHg) than normal? |
|
Definition
| afferent arteriole's diameters are larger than efferent. |
|
|
Term
| nephron is the functional unit of the kidney. renal blood flow is 1.25 L/min |
|
Definition
| Aplpha I receptors on kidney restrict via NE. acts on glomerular to increase renin output. |
|
|
Term
| Where does filtration, reabspo, secretion and excretion occur along nepron? |
|
Definition
flitration - glomeruls capsule (passive)
secretion - along nephron form peritubular capillaries (active)
reasbp: proximal convulted tubule (passive and active)
excretion: passed beyond collecting duct |
|
|
Term
| What gets filtered in nephrons? |
|
Definition
| everything except RBC, WBC and proteins. |
|
|
Term
| What forces determine nephron filtration? |
|
Definition
1.CBP
2.fluid pressure in bowman's capsule
3.colloid osmotic pressure |
|
|
Term
| renin and NE acting on alpha receptor do what to nephrons? |
|
Definition
| vasocontriction - determines glomerular filtration rate |
|
|
Term
| Where does what reabsp in nephron? |
|
Definition
| 65% reabsp in proximal convaluted tubule, 25% NA+ and H20 reabsorbed in loop of henle. 10% collected in DCT and collecting duct. |
|
|
Term
| Where do diuretics/ anti.. act on? |
|
Definition
| in DCT and collecting duct |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movement of materials from nephron to peritubular caps |
|
|
Term
| What cmpd is secreted in nephrons? |
|
Definition
| All K+ is put back into the PCT, but later can be exchaged for NA+ in the DCT and collecting ducts. |
|
|
Term
| What is the renal plasma clearance test used for? |
|
Definition
| know the volume of plasma from which a substance is cleared |
|
|
Term
65% of Na+ and all K+ are absorbed in PCT, 25# Na+ in loop of henle.
aldosterone - increases NA+ asbp in DCT/CD |
|
Definition
| natriuretic peptide increases Na+ excretion |
|
|
Term
| 60% water reasbp in descending loop of henle and Na+ is blocked. Ascending loop of henle blocks H20 but let s in na+. CL travls along to maintain negativity. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What does an increase in ADH do? Decrease? |
|
Definition
increase: increase reabp, and less urine volume, increase blood volume.
decrease: opposite effect |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between iodine deficeincy dz and grave's dz? |
|
Definition
ID: lower levels of T3/T4 (b/c low I2) leads to more TSH, TRH be made, enlarged thyroid - treat with T3/T4 replacement
Graves: too much T3,T4 from execess TSH. |
|
|
Term
bone remodeling is stimulated by what? inhibited by what?
osteoblast vs osteoclast? |
|
Definition
stim: cortisol and paraythyroid hormone
inhibited: estrogen
osteoblast:makes bones
osteoclast: breaks bones down |
|
|
Term
Which gland is plama Ca2+ sensitive?
Which gland produces calcitonin? |
|
Definition
parathyroid hormone
thryoid |
|
|
Term
| Whats the difference between parathyroid hormone and calcitonin? |
|
Definition
parathryoid: makes bones, kidneys etc reabsp ca2+
calitonin: opposite |
|
|
Term
| What are the three functions of respiratory system? |
|
Definition
1. provide o2
2. remove CO2
3. balance plama Ph |
|
|
Term
| What happens to the diaphragm during inspiration and exspiration? |
|
Definition
inspiration: diaphragm contracts (flattens) and volume increases
expiration: opposite |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| partial pressure (one gas) is proportional to the total amount of gas |
|
|
Term
| What makes up most of the air we breathe? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Describe O2 and hb (hemoglobin). |
|
Definition
| hemoglobin has 4 subproteins. Saturated under normal arteriol Po2, lower releases O2. Venous (40 mmhg) keeps O2) |
|
|
Term
| Co2 binds more readily to O2. What cause more O2 to become more available? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which form does co2 mostly travel in? |
|
Definition
co2 + H20 > H2Co3 > **HCO3 + H+
increases H+ in body |
|
|
Term
| How is respiration regulated? |
|
Definition
pneumotaxic inhibits, apheustic stimulates DRG to effect inspiratoin (COntrols diaphragm)
VRG controls accessory muscles.
* both via the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| Chemoreceptors on aortic arch pick up on what? |
|
Definition
low levels of partial pressure o2
high levels of H+ |
|
|
Term
| central medulla in brain stem isn't permeable to H+ but co2, so can pick up PCO2. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What creates surface tension in alveoli? |
|
Definition
| hydrogen bonds in h2o. surfactant has proteins and phospholipids that bind to h20 to reduce surface tension |
|
|
Term
| What is the processes called for making sperm and egg. |
|
Definition
sperm - spermatogenesis
egg -oogenesis |
|
|
Term
| What are the main sex hormones and where do they come from? |
|
Definition
androgens(testosterone) - testes
estrogen and progesterone - ovary or placenta |
|
|
Term
| secondary sexual characteristics are... |
|
Definition
not related to reproduction
- hair growth
- libido
-behavior |
|
|
Term
| what is the site of spermatogenesis? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what surrounds seminiferous tubules and produces testosterone? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the network of tubules that collect sperm? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what conducts sperm out of testis into epidiymus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the duct where sperm is stored and concentrated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the thick wall tube that moves sperm out? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the paired structures, that secrete material into vas deferens? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| single gland at junction of vas defs and urethera that accounts for most of semen volume? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| What stimulates spermatogenesis? |
|
Definition
| FSH follicle stimulating hormone |
|
|
Term
| how are sertoli cells and sperm cells linked? |
|
Definition
| sertoli surrounds sperm cells to regulate FSH and testosterone. Sperm cells take 64 days to develop. Made by meiosis. haploid. |
|
|
Term
| What is the default patterns for fetuses> |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Where does fertilization take place? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| zygote enters uterus 3-4 days after fertilization. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| guandotropin acts as LH to keep luteum proudcing hormones |
|
Definition
| estrogen and progesteron suprress GNRH in hypthalamus to keep LH and FSH from secreting. |
|
|
Term
| what are some functions of progesterone? |
|
Definition
1.prepare uterus for implantation
2.reduce uterine contractions
3.promotes ueterine growth
4.placnetal attachment |
|
|
Term
| When does parturation occcur? |
|
Definition
| 2 weeks before birth. estrogen induces oxytocin receptors in myometrium. |
|
|
