-a phenomenon where it becomes difficult to detect local feature changes in an upside down face, despite identical changes being obvious in an upright face.

-the effect manipulates features to show how orientation matters.

an easily reversible state of physical inactivity characterized by lack of interaction with the external environment.

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-Possibly related to enhancing/recharging immune response

-Learning memory consolidation

-The acquisition of information.

-Two main categories: non-associative learning and associative learning

-Learning after repeated exposure to a single stimulus.

-"Stimulus-Response": habituation (tuning things out, response decreases) vs. sensitization (response grows, you pay more attention to what's happening)

-E.g.: Conditioning

-Associating two (or more) previously unrelated stimuli.

-The ability to retain and retrieve previously learned information.

-Two main categories: short-term and long term memory

-Retention of information for seconds-minutes; upper limit.

-can be converted to long-term memory via 'consolidation'

-Measured neuron activity in hippocampus when subjects watched video clips multiple times and during free recall 5 minutes later.

-The same neurons were active during both events.

-Damage to Wernicke's Area

-Unable to process language input, therefore output is nonsensical

-Damage to Broca's Area

-Input okay, only output affected, therefore the individual is aware

-The conscious interpretation of input from our external and internal environments.

-Involves sensory input (sensation), previous experiences, and rules of interpretation

Coding depends on receptor(s) and pathway(s) activated

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Coding depends on the frequency of action potentials generated.

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Inhibition of neighboring receptor activity in the presence of a strong stimulus; increases acuity.

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Lower.

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It decreases.

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-Pain Receptors

-Free nerve endings; initiate protective responses

-respond to strong stimuli that could cause tissue damage

-Types: Mechanical, thermal, polymodal

-Two Pathways: (1) spinal pathway = protective reflex, (2) ascending pathway = cerebral cortex

-Perception of discomfort; Brain's interpretation of sensory information received from nociceptors

-Produces strong memories and subsequent avoidance behavior

-Clinically important for diagnosing medical problems

-Sharp, acutely unpleasant perception that can be quickly and easily localized.

-Responses transmitted via myelinated neurons (approx 30 m/sec)

-Dull, unpleasant perception that is diffuse, poorly localized.

-Responses transmitted via unmyelinated neurons (approx 1 m/sec)

Gate control theory.

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-When pain originating from one area (typically visceral) is interpreted as coming from another area (typically superficial)

-Ex: Heart attack pain is felt in neck, shoulders & back; Pain from gall bladder/liver area is felt as upper back pain

-Pain from a body part that is missing (often amputated)

-Pain has real, physiological basis due to brain activity; cause(s) unclear

(1) Provide information about our chemical surroundings.

(2) Use chemoreceptors to detect molecules in solution.

(3) Not strictly independent senses (taste mostly dependent on smell, smell not as dependent on taste)

-Functional unit of taste

-Each contains approximately 100 receptor (taste) cells

-"Deliciousness"

-Detects glutamate (flavor enhancer) 

Sweet, Umami, Bitter = GPCR, ATP production

Salty = Na+, release of serotonin

Sour = H+, release of serotonin

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-Found within the olfactory epithelium, within the nasal cavity

-approx. 10,000,000 total

-chemicals detected depend on the receptor type (there are thousands)

-they are the only neurons known to regularly undergo neurogenesis (complete turnover every 2 months!)

-Enhances detection of reproductive organs

-Predominantly in males

-Accessory olfactory structure in many mammals (regresses during development in great apes, including humans)

-genetics

-melanin amount and distribution (blue eyes =little/no melanin, brown/black = a lot of melanin)

- approx. 65 species total

-specific to mammals

-2 known to infect humans 

-more than 50% of adults possess and prevalence increases with age

-Process through wich light reflected from objects in our environment is translated into a mental image.

(1) Light enters eye; lens focuses that light on retina

(2) Photoreceptors in retina transduce the light energy into electrical signals

(3) Neural Processing

-color vision; require high light levels

-number of cones declines rapidly away from the fovea

-number of rods greatest near the fovea, declines gradually away from fovea

-only cones in fovea

(1) Light absorbed by photopigment in outer segment of photoreceptor (for rods, photopigment = rhodopsin)

(2) Photopigment changes shape; Na+ channels close (Na+ can't get into cell)

(3) Potassium leakage out of cell now causes hyperpolarization of outer segment.

(4) Hyperpolarizing membrane potential causes closing of Ca++ channels in inner segment.

(5) Less Ca++ enters cell, neurotransmitter release declines (glutamate)

(6) Bipolar cell receives less neurotransmitter, generates smaller graded potentials.

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-Generate graded potentials only, can't generate action potentials

-excitatory or inhibitory (even though neurotransmitter is the same - glutamate)

-synapse with ganglion cells, which transmit action potentials via optic nerve to the brain.

-Mechanical pressure waves caused by air (water) molecules put into motion.

-Two important properties:

(1) loudness (amplitude) - measured in decibels (dB)

(2) pitch (frequency) - measured in Hertz (Hz)

-alternating pressure waves, with peaks of compressed air and valleys where the molecules are farther apart.

-distinguished by their amplitude and frequency.

Responds to changes in the body's position in space.

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Sensory receptors for rotational acceleration

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Sensory Receptors for linear acceleration and head position.

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-"involuntary"/subconscious nervous system

-innervates all effector organs and tissues in body except skeletal muscle.

-two main components: (1) sympathetic, (2) parasympathetic

-Excitatory, "fight or flight," "Tend & befriend"

-Pathways use norepinephrine