Term
| study of the *function of living organisms; *"function" can be evaluated at many levels: molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, person-to-person |
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Definition
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Term
| cellular organelle involved in *cell division and *regulation of protein production |
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Definition
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Term
| structure of cell involved in *communication, *separation of contents and charges, and *importation/exportation of substances |
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Definition
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Term
| cellular structure involved in maintaining the cell's *structure, generating *mobility, and active in cell *division; includes thin (actin) & thick (myosin) filaments |
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Definition
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Term
| structures involved in *remodeling processes within cell; "packages" that contain secretory, digested, or ingested chemicals |
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Definition
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Term
| type of vesicles; involved in migration, signaling, membrane transport, and forming *new blood vessels |
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Definition
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Term
| function as sensors and *movers of cells; are composed of *microtubules; found extracellularly |
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Definition
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Term
| cellular organelles involved in *ATP production, *heat generation, *O2 radical generation, and *regulation of apoptosis; these were originally *extracellular organelles which became incorporated inside cells over time |
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Definition
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Term
| cellular organelles active in *protein production |
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Definition
| rough endoplasmic reticulum |
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Term
| cellular organelles involved in *post-translational modification of proteins; also important in *ion concentration regulation in some systems (I.e.: Ca2+ in skeletal muscle) |
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Definition
| smooth endoplasmic reticulum |
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Term
| these *counter O2 radicals |
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Definition
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Term
| programmed cell death; common in development, in killing defective cells, and can be destructive as well (i.e.: cancer) |
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Definition
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Term
| type of stress in which *increases are seen in: *mitochondrial biogenesis, *ATP production, *thermogenesis; but, production of *ROS (radical oxygen species) is *controlled |
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Definition
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Term
| type of stress in which *decreases are seen in: *mitochondrial biogenesis, *ATP production, *mutagenesis, *apoptosis/cell death; *increases are seen in production of *ROS (radical oxygen species) |
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Definition
| chronic (long term; diseases) |
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Term
| soluble misfolded proteins are targeted (tagged) with ubiquitin and sent to this protease system to be 'recycled' (broken down and released back into the body) |
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Definition
| UPS (ubiquitin protease system) |
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Term
| any protein aggregates unable to be 'recycled' via the ubiquitin protease system (b/c they're too large/complex) are incorporated into a vesicle & 'fed' to this to be 'recycled' |
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Definition
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Term
| if these systems don't work, diseases occur from build up of faulty proteins |
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Definition
| UPS (ubiquitin protease system) & autophagy-lysosome |
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Term
| this molecule is *mobile throughout the membrane, but *stiffens it, and *affects intracellular communication (2nd messenger substances & hormones) |
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Definition
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Term
| type of proteins spanning the *entire cell membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| type of proteins attached to the *intracellular side of the membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| type of proteins attached to the *extracellular side of the membrane |
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Definition
| extracellular (peripheral) |
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Term
| phrase used to describe cell membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| type of drug which *lowers cholesterol levels |
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Definition
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Term
| hold proteins in configurations on the membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| bind *ligands or *chemicals such as proteins, peptides, or steroids to *initiate a response |
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Definition
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Term
| *number and *specificity of these is *extremely important in determining *responses |
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Definition
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Term
| type of adhesion molecule which binds to *INTRAcellular matrix |
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Definition
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Term
| type of adhesion molecule which is involved in *INTERcellular binding (stick something to the membrane & adhere to it) |
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Definition
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Term
| type of transmembrane proteins which are *always open; found in the membrane of mitochondria, cell nucleus, and cell membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| specialized type of pores which allow *water movement; fluid regulation is *HIGHLY dependent upon the **NUMBER of these pores at the cell surface; these pores can be regulated via vasopressin (AKA: ADH) |
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Definition
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Term
| these transmembrane proteins can exist in an *open, *inactivated (usually something on the inside is closed off), or *closed (usually something on the outside is closed off) state to modulate the flow of *ions into or out of the cell depending on the current concentration gradient |
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Definition
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Term
| determined according to the *valence and differences in *ion concentrations across a membrane |
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Definition
| transmembrane potential; resting membrane potential |
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Term
| these form gap junctions that are both transmembrane and transcellular |
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Definition
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Term
| these type of junctions aid in the *RAPID movement of ions and chemicals *between cells and help to *quickly SYNCHRONIZE activity in tissues (i.e.: uterus, heart, nervous system) |
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Definition
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Term
| type of membrane proteins allowing rapid movement of *solutes across the membrane (i.e.: Glut 1 allows glucose into cells) |
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Definition
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Term
| these type of membrane proteins use *ATP to move *ions across the membrane (i.e. Na+/K ATPase (impt in nervous system & muscle), Ca2+ ATPase (impt in muscle)) |
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Definition
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Term
| these are located *inside of membranes and help to generate intracellular signals (i.e.: adenylyl cyclase, which forms cAMP from ATP) |
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Definition
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Term
| ions that exist in *high concentrations *EXTRAcellularly (3 important ones) |
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Definition
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Term
| ion that exists in *high concentrations *INTRAcellularly (1 important one); is constantly leaks out of cell, but is brought back inside via the Na+/K+ ATPase |
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Definition
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Term
| proteins are *high...(intra or extracellularly?) |
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Definition
| intracellularly; they are largely negative and remain inside due to their large sizes |
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Term
| glucose is *high...(intra or extracellularly?) |
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Definition
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Term
| equation which predicts the flux of a substance across a membrane; is dependent on: membrane *thickness, *permeability, *chemical & *electrical gradients across membranes, *temperature, *size of molecules, and *solubility |
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Definition
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Term
| the thinner & more permeable the membrane, the ____ the flux rate of a substance |
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Definition
| greater (distance & permeability) |
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Term
| the greater the chemical & electrical gradients, the ____ the flux rate of a substance |
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Definition
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Term
| the greater the temperature, the ____ the flux rate of a substance |
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Definition
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Term
| CO2 is ____ times more soluble than O2 |
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Definition
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Term
| total number of *free particles in a solution; measured in osmoles/L or mosmoles/L; number of particles depends on how a molecule dissociates (i.e.: NaCl-->2 particles; glucose-->1 particle (no dissociation)) |
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Definition
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Term
| proteins have ____ osmolality and carry a *large number of negative charges |
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Definition
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Term
| the bigger 'the sponge', the ____ the osmolality, the ____ H2O it can hold |
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Definition
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Term
| osmotic pressure depends upon _____ & _____ |
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Definition
| concentration gradients; permeability |
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Term
| described as the relative pressure needed to overcome the *flux of water from a region of *high to a region of *low water concentration; (think, the higher the column of water, the higher this measurement is) |
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Definition
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Term
| refers to number of particles in a solution that *cannot cross the membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| if osmotic pressures are equal and *isotonic conditions exist, ___ net flux of H2O occurs; (i.e.: infusion of normal saline) |
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Definition
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Term
| if osmotic pressure is *low and *hypotonicity (think solution has LOWER solutes in it than inside of the cell) exists, cells will ____; (can be caused by H2O intoxication) |
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Definition
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Term
| if osmotic pressure is *high and *hypertonicity (think solution has HIGHER solutes in it than compared to inside of the cell) exists, cells will ____; (can be caused by dehydration) |
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Definition
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Term
| normal level & range for plasma osmolality |
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Definition
| ~300 mOsm/kg (ranges from 285-295) |
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Term
| can quickly test for dehydration by |
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Definition
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Term
| hydrostatic pressure in the venous system generally describes ___ (think of it as pressure that is 'pushing' out on vessel, forcing fluids out) |
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Definition
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Term
| osmotic pressure in the venous system is generated by ___ (think of things that 'pull' fluid *toward them) |
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Definition
| albumin, other proteins, NaCl, etc. |
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Term
| net flux of fluid at *arteriole end of a capillary (hydrostatic greater than osmotic); this movement then decreases hydrostatic P and increases osmotic P (b/c ions/proteins are concentrated in blood) |
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Definition
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Term
| if the lymph system is overwhelmed &/or not functioning properly, this condition can arise in the tissues as a result of the loss of fluids at the arteriole end of a capillary |
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Definition
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Term
| in *right sided heart failure, fluid backs up in the ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| in *left sided heart failure, fluid backs up in the ___; this can lead to right sided heart failure also |
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Definition
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Term
| net flux of fluid at *venule end of a capillary (hydrostatic lower than osmotic); this movement effectively maintains blood volume |
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Definition
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Term
| this type of transport is *selective, has a *transport maximum, increases speed of transport relative to simple diffusion, does *NOT require ATP, and **DEPENDS on a concentration gradient, transporting substances **DOWN their concentration gradient |
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Definition
| carrier mediated transport |
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Term
| this type of transport uses *ATP hydrolysis in order to create energy to move particles, is *selective, has a *transport maximum, increases the speed of transport relative to diffusion, and transports substances **AGAINST their concentration gradient (i.e.: Na+/K+ ATPase & Ca2+ ATPase pumps) |
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Definition
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Term
| this type of transport uses *energy generated via **ANOTHER transport mechanism, utilizes a gradient generated via **ANOTHER transport mechanism, is *selective, has a *transport maximum, increases the speed of transport relative to diffusion, and transports substances **AGAINST their concentration gradient (Na+/Glu transporter) |
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Definition
| secondary active transport (see slide 45 for example) |
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Term
| mode of cell communication in which the *local release of chemicals from one cell affects **nearby cells that have the right receptors (common in nervous system & NMJ) |
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Definition
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Term
| mode of cell communication in which the *local release of chemicals from one cell act on the **same cell's *autoreceptor; an example of local feedback; can be negative feedback, such as in the case of serotonin |
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Definition
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Term
| mode of cell communication in which hormones, cytokines, chemokines, or antibodies carried **long distances in the *blood affect the function of **distant cells which contain the right receptors; these will continue to act until degraded OR no more molecules are released |
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Definition
| endocrine &/or immune modulators |
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Term
| *steroid receptors are found inside *____ and can translocate to the ____ (i.e.: estrogen, glucocorticoids, androgens) |
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Definition
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Term
| *catalytic receptors are enzyme systems found ____ cells; their ultimate goal is to move *____ to the membrane (i.e.: insulin, erythropoietin) |
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Definition
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Term
| ligand-gated or receptor-gated ion channels (simply *move ions) are ____ (faster or slower?) at intracellular signaling than G-protein-coupled receptors (initiate *signaling cascades) |
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Definition
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Term
| *GABA, *Glutamate, and *Acetylcholine use ____ to signal intracellularly; these are fast signaling processes |
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Definition
| ligand-gated or receptor-gated ion channels |
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Term
| *Dopamine and *Norepinephrine use ____ to signal intracellularly; these are slower signaling processes |
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Definition
| G-protein-coupled receptors |
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Term
| *first step in *signal transduction during intracellular communication |
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Definition
| *RECOGNITION of signal by receptor |
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Term
| *second step in *signal transduction during intracellular communication |
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Definition
| *TRANSDUCTION to 2nd messenger and signaling cascade |
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Term
| *third step in *signal transduction during intracellular communication |
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Definition
| *TRANSMISSION to effectors (enzymes, channels, transcription modulation) |
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Term
| *final (fourth) step in *signal transduction during intracellular communication |
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Definition
| *RESPONSE (opens channel, modifies protein production) |
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Term
| cholera *toxin opens ____ channels (causing Na+ & Cl- loss) and ____ is lost from GI tract; toxin is produced by the bacteria, but *unaffected by antibiotics (same ineffectiveness seen for anthrax toxin & pertussis toxin of whopping cough) |
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Definition
| Cl-; H2O (results in 'rice water' diarrhea) (see slide 57 for example) |
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Term
| chemicals that bind to receptors and cause *activation; may or may not be naturally occurring substances (i.e.: think of how nicotine ( ____ in this situation) can cause a release of dopamine) |
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Definition
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Term
| chemicals that bind to receptors and *inhibit the receptor by preventing *naturally occurring substances from binding to the receptor, making it *unable to respond (i.e. Cl- channel blockers; Naloxone (used to counter effects of opioids, so serves as ____ in this situation) blocks opiate receptors) |
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Definition
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Term
| process of *chemically modifying a receptor to make it *unable to respond to a chemical; this is usually long term, but is reversible (i.e.: leptin receptors in obese people) |
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Definition
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Term
| condition resulting in an *increased response to same dose of a chemical; results in an *increased need of a drug in order to have the *same effect; can occur because of up-regulation of receptors |
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Definition
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Term
| *internalization of receptors from the membrane results in this condition |
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Definition
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Term
| generally describes an *increase or *decrease in number of *receptors on a membrane |
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Definition
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Term
| this *change in receptor genetics prevents interaction of a chemical with a receptor and NO response will occur; likely non-reversible (i.e.: androgen insensitivity leading to feminized males; cystic fibrosis is another example) |
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Definition
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Term
| beta receptor blockers are given to heart failure & hypertensive patients. long term administration of this type of drug can result in a(n) _____ of receptors; this response is an attempt by the body to secure as much of whatever chemical the receptor is specific for as possible. (!!caution needs to be taken when discontinuing these types of drugs because if a beta blocker is suddenly withdrawn, blood pressure will spike, and could lead to a heart attack.) |
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Definition
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Term
| motor neurons tend to be ____ (size comparison) in comparison to sensory neurons |
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Definition
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Term
| these parts of the neuron *receive input |
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Definition
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Term
| these parts of the neuron *send information to other neurons, a gland, or a muscle |
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Definition
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Term
| two types of synapses seen in the nervous system |
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Definition
| gap junctions; chemical synapses |
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Term
| in a chemical synapse, *neurotransmitters are released in *____ from the *_____neuron |
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Definition
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Term
| *space between the presynaptic & postsynaptic neurons |
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Definition
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Term
| these synaptic neurons (post- or pre-?) may be neuronal *OR muscular; *receptors *NEED to be present here in order for a response to be elicited |
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Definition
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Term
| *first step in chemical communication between axons; depolarization from this opens Ca2+ channels |
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Definition
| presynaptic *stimulation of axons (from action potentials) |
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Term
| *second step in chemical communication between axons; follows presynaptic axon stimulation |
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Definition
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Term
| *third step in chemical communication between axons; follows Ca2+ influx into axon |
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Definition
| *transport of neurotransmitters into membrane vesicles |
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Term
| *fourth step in chemical communication between axons; follows neurotransmitters forming into vesicles |
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Definition
| vesicles with NT *bind with membrane |
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Term
| *fifth step in chemical communication between axons; follows vesicle binding to membrane |
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Definition
| neurotransmitters are released from vesicles *into the synapse |
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Term
| *six step in chemical communication between axons; follows neurotransmitter release |
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Definition
| ligand (NT) binds to receptor |
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Term
| *seventh step in chemical communication between axons; follows neurotransmitter binding to receptor |
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Definition
| neurotransmitter is either 1) inactivated (via *enzyme degradation) or 2) *re-uptaken presynaptically by specific transporters |
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Term
| glial cell type which serve as resident macrophages in CNS; provide *immune functions |
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Definition
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Term
| *star-shaped glial cell type which provides physical support to neuron & can clean up debris; have ability to modify how neurotransmitters function; (i.e.: can produce T4 & estrogen; can soak up glutamate) |
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Definition
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Term
| *chemical energy is produced via differences in |
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Definition
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Term
| *electrical energy is generated via differences in |
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Definition
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Term
| name of equation to calculate *resting membrane potential (E=60/z*log10[Xi]/[Xo]); *valence (z) and *concentration differences ([Xi]/[Xo]) are significant here |
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Definition
| Equilibrium or Nernst Potentials Equation |
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Term
| name of equation to calculate *overall membrane potential (E=60log (PK[K]o + PNa[Na]o + PCl[Cl]i / Pk[K]i +PNa[Na]i + PCl[Cl]o)); * permeability and ion concentrations are significant here |
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Definition
| Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz Equation |
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Term
| membranes have a ____ permeability to K+, meaning that at rest, K+ exits/enters the cell easily |
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Definition
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Term
| membranes have a ____ permeability to Na+, meaning that at rest, Na+ does NOT enter/exit the cell easily |
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Definition
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Term
| it's very important to keep this ion within normal ranges (acceptable range is VERY small) in the body; *high levels of this *extracellularly can lead to deopolarizations leading to seizures and heart issues |
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Definition
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Term
| event triggered when inside of cell becomes MORE *positive inside *relative to the outside (this could just mean less negative, NOT necessarily positive overall); due to *positive ions (Na+, Ca2+) moving *into excitable tissues |
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Definition
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Term
| inside of cell becomes MORE *negative, relative to the outside, than it was even at *rest; due to Cl- moving inside from outside, K+ moving from inside to outside, OR both; can be a result of repolarization or occur as an isolated event |
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Definition
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Term
| a special type of depolarization (massive); occurs when something (i.e.: Ach) opens Na+ channels-->threshold is reached-->depolarization (change in voltage) results in opening of a LOT more Na+ channels |
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Definition
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Term
| occurs when cell is returning to its resting membrane potential; Na+ channels become *inactivated and K+ will move outward; can result in hyperpolarization |
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Definition
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Term
| refractory period occurring first during an action potential; due to *inactivation of Na+ channels; *NO further APs can occur during this |
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Definition
| absolute refractory period |
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Term
| refractory period occurring second during an action potential; occurs as Na+ channels are becoming *re-activated; additional APs can occur during this period, but a greater stimulus will be required in order to meet threshold due to current hyperpolarized state |
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Definition
| relative refractory period |
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Term
| negative resting potential is maintained by the ____; also helps to maintain intracellular K+ levels (since cells are leaky for K+) |
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Definition
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Term
| Na+/K+ ATPase pumps ___ ___ OUT & ___ ___ IN |
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Definition
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Term
| this condition results from a mutation in the *K+ channels (causes increased intracellular levels because K+ in unable to leak from cells); leads to abnormal *K+ channel inactivation, increased excitability and *muscle weakness |
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Definition
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Term
| this can cause *Na+ channel inactivation which can lead to death |
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Definition
| brevetoxin produced from 'red tide algae' (Karenia brevis) |
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Term
| this blocks Na+ channels and *nerve conduction; used to *deaden pain (you don't sense the pain because signals don't get to the brain) |
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Definition
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Term
| a *decrease in this ion can lead to *increased Na+ channel excitability, causing muscle cramps and cardiac arrhythmias |
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Definition
| Ca2+ (known as hypocalcemia) |
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Term
| *increased levels of this ion basically *deadens everything, decreasing excitations |
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Definition
| Ca2+ (known as hypercalcemia) |
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Term
| forms of this ion are given to pregnant women in an attempt to deaden uterine contractions |
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Definition
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Term
| describes small amplitude electrical changes POST-synaptically; additive spatially & temporally; *decrement over space; may be depolarizing OR hyper polarizing |
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Definition
| Endplate Potentials (EEP) |
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Term
| large in amplitude; occur in an *all-or-none fashion; do NOT decrement; caused by opening Na+ or Ca2+ channels (or both); always excitatory (depolarizations); conduction speed depends on SIZE of axon, myelination & nodes of Ranvier; the *frequency of these can tell about the size of a stimulus |
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Definition
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Term
| there is a high concentration of ____ channels located in a node of Ranvier; these lead to the FAST conduction rates in saltatory propagation |
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Definition
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Term
| Ach, NE, E, DA, Glu, 5-HT are ALL referred to as ____ because they cause depolarization |
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Definition
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Term
| GABA & Glycine are both inhibitory & cause ____ |
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Definition
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Term
| subtype of receptor which Glutamate acts on; leads to opening of channels which allow Ca2+ & Na+ into the cell in order to act on NMDA, AMPA, Kainate (**ALL have different channels, but ALL are ion channels which elicit a QUICK response) |
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Definition
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Term
| subtype of receptor which Glutamate acts on; uses 2nd msgr systems, such as phospholipase C & adenylyl cyclase |
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Definition
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Term
| subtype of receptor which Ach acts on; are found in *skeletal M., brain, *ganglia |
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Definition
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Term
| subtype of receptor which Ach acts on; are found in *smooth M., brain, *heart; initial stimulation of these leads to stimulation ALL over body ('shotgun effect'-->broad widespread symptoms) |
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Definition
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Term
| examples of diseases which occur with destruction of neurons |
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Definition
| Downs Syndrome, ALS, polio, Alzheimers, strokes, Mad Cow Disease (prions), Parkinson's Disease |
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Term
| examples of diseases in which demyelination occurs |
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Definition
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Term
| type of M. which regulates the patency of airways, tone of blood vessels, move substances in GI & urinary tracts |
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Definition
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Term
| type of M. which functions in swallowing & defecation, locomotion, posture, work, heat production (shivering & movement) |
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Definition
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Term
| step 1 of NMJ functioning |
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Definition
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Term
| step 2 of NMJ functioning; follows N. stimulation |
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Definition
| Ca2+ channels open presynaptically |
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Term
| step 3 of NMJ functioning; follows Ca2+ channels opening |
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Definition
| Ach is released into cleft |
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Term
| step 4 of NMJ functioning; follows Ach release |
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Definition
| Ach binds to nicotinic receptors |
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Term
| step 5 of NMJ functioning: follows Ach binding to nicotinic receptors |
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Definition
| Na+ channels (linked to Ach receptors) are opened, allowing Na+ in |
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Term
| step 6 of NMJ functioning: follows Na+ channels opening |
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Definition
| increased Na+ inside leads to depolarization |
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Term
| final (7th) step of NMJ functioning: follows depolarization |
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Definition
| excess Ach is broken into acetyl & choline via acetylcholinesterases; choline is recycled & with help from Chat (enzyme) is formed into more Ach |
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Term
| autoimmune condition resulting from bodying making antibodies to nicotinic Ach receptors; results in M. weakness, ptyosis, and a decrease in Ach receptors |
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Definition
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Term
| toxin which blocks the presynaptic release of Ach; NO Ach --> NO M. contraction; disease can be a result of consuming foods which were poorly canned |
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Definition
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Term
| this medication is given to inhibit Acetylcholinesterase, allowing Ach to act on receptors for longer; can be effective in Tx of myasthenia gravis |
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Definition
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Term
| this medication blocks the reuptake of choline presynaptically |
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Definition
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Term
| this medication is a receptor agonist which competes with Ach for nicotinic receptors, effectively blocking their action |
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Definition
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Term
| 3 examples of non-therapeutic Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors; when these are present, the body releases a MASSIVE amount of Ach which stimulates other nicotinic & muscarinic receptors |
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Definition
| pesticides, sarin, & monocrotophos |
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Term
| used to evaluate the electrical activity of M.s; these can be used to evaluate the presence of M. diseases; can evaluate the presence of diseases of the N.s innervating M.s; can be used in polysymnographies (sleep studies); does **NOT measure the strength of a contraction |
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Definition
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Term
| describe the nucleation state of a skeletal M. |
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Definition
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Term
| describes the fusing of a number of separate cells into 1 cell |
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Definition
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Term
| plasma membrane covering the M. fiber |
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Definition
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Term
| invaginations of the sarcolemma form ___, which are important in the spread of electrical activity through a large M. |
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Definition
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Term
| molecule in M. which uptakes O2 from blood & carries O2 in M.; the more active a M., the higher this is; the more O2 in a M., the redder the M. |
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Definition
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Term
| in CO poisoning, CO binds to myoglobin more than O2 does; the response of a muscle with no O2 is... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| functional unit of a M. fiber |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| in M. hypertrophy, the number of ____ increases |
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Definition
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Term
| name 3 parts of the troponin complex & what they bind |
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Definition
troponin C: Ca2+
troponin T: tropomyosin
troponin I: actin |
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Term
| striations are present in these types of M. (2) and indicate the presence of the regular arrangement of the contractile fibers |
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Definition
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Term
| this covers the myosin head binding sites on actin filament |
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Definition
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Term
| Ca2+ storage compartment of the sarcoplasmic reticulum; function in release of & storage after reuptake of Ca2+ |
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Definition
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Term
| intracellular component of skeletal M that results in Duchenne M. Dystrophy (worst type & most common); lack in this component is ONLY seen in males |
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Definition
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Term
| interruption of this extracellular skeletal M. component results in limb-girdle M. dystrophy |
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Definition
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