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Process that raises surface of the crust |
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process by which rocks bend or break in response to compression, tension, or shearing |
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| Process by which one kind of rock transforms into a different kind of rock |
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Mountains are constructed by tectonic plate interactions in a process called... |
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Mountains frequently occur in... |
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| constructive processes ______, while destructive processes ________. |
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| build mountains up, tear them back down again |
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Young mountains are (1)
Middle-aged mountains are (2)
Old-age mountains are (3) |
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1) high, steep and growing upward.
2) dissected by erosion.
3) deeply eroded and often buried.
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Change in shape via deformation is called |
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_____ is the study of rock deformation. |
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Fractures that have no offset. |
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Layers that are bent by slow plastic flow. |
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Fractures that are offset. |
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Planar metamorphic fabric. |
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| aka unstrained/ horizontal beds, spherical sand grains, no folds or faults |
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| tilted beds, metamorphic alteration, folding and faulting |
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| two major deformation types |
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| deformation type depends on... |
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| rocks break by fracturing |
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| brittle deformation occurs in... |
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| rocks deform by flow and folding |
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| ductile deformation occurs in... |
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| a transition between brittle and ductile deformation occurs at... |
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| caused by force acting on rock, known as stress |
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| what is the cause of deformation? |
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| the force applied per unit area across an area |
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| a large force per area results in... |
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| a small force per unit area results in... |
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| tectonic collision produces... |
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| tectonic collision is the ____ form of deformation |
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| compression tends to ____ material. greater stress in one direction. |
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| extension tends to ____ material. |
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| an object feels the same stress on all sides |
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| 3-d structural orientation is described by... |
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| horizontal intersection with a tilted surface |
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| angle of surface down from the horizontal |
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| perpendicular to strike, measured downslope |
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| line rather than plane such as scratches on rock |
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| planar rock fractures without offset, result from tensional tectonic stresses |
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| minerals can fill joints to form... |
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| joints control _____ of rock. |
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| systematic joints form in... |
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| planar fractures offset by movement cross the break |
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| faults may be ___ or ____. |
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| sudden movement along faults cause... |
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| faults may offset large blocks of earth. the amount of offset is a measure called _____. |
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| the dominant type of crustal stress and defines the fault. |
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| the direction of relative block motion reflects... (2) |
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| hanging wall block (above the fault), and the footwall block (below the fault). |
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| on a dipping fault, the blocks are classified as the... |
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| your head is near the hanging wall block, and you are standing on the footwall block. |
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| standing in a tunnel excavated along the fault... where are your head and feet? |
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| blocks move parallel to fault-plane dip. |
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| blocks move parallel to fault-plane strike |
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| combination of dip-slip and strike-slip |
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| In a dip-slip fault, sliding is ____ to fault-plane dip, thus blocks move up or down the slope of the fault. |
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| reverse fault and normal fault |
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| Two kinds of dip-slip faults depend on relative motion... |
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| fault dip is steeper than 35 degrees. |
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| fault dip is less than 35 degrees. |
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| opposite block moves to observer's right. |
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| opposite block moves to observer's left |
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| in a ____, fault motion is parallel to the strike of the fault. |
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| ...are preferentially eroded. |
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| minerals may grow on fault surfaces due to |
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| layered rocks may be deformed into curves called |
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| portion of maximum curvature on a fold. |
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| less curved "sides" of a fold |
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| imaginary surface defined by connecting hinges of successively nested folds |
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| orogenic settings produce large volumes of... |
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| folds may often occur in a... |
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| arch-like fold; limbs dip away from the hinge |
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| trough-like fold; limbs dip toward the hinge |
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| a fold like a carpet draped over a stairstep |
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| monocline is generated by _______ in the basement rock. |
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| has a hinge that is tilted |
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| ____, Wyoming, is a plunging fold. |
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| fold with appearance of an overturned bowl, erode to expose old rocks in center and younger rocks outside |
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| fold shaped like a bowl, erode to expose young rocks in center and older outside |
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| Domes and basins result from... |
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| layers slip as stratified rocks are bent. |
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| Form by ductile flow of hot, soft rock |
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| horizontal compression causes rocks to... |
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| compressional deformation |
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| Foliation develops via... |
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| Develops perpendicular to shortening strain. |
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| Construction of mountains requires substantial... |
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| Mt Everest is comprised of ____ (formed below sea level). |
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| Lofty mountains are supported by a thickened crust. |
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| High muntains are supported by... |
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| Thickening is caused by... |
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| Average continental crust |
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| Beneath orogenic belts (how thick?) |
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| buoy the mountains upward. |
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| This thickened crust helps... |
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| Surface elevation represents a ____ between forces. |
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| Pulls plates into the mantle. |
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| Floats plates on top of the mantle |
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| The term ____ describes a balance between forces. |
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| _______ is compensated after a disturbance. |
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| Adding weight pushes the... |
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| Removing weight causes... |
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| Mountains refelct a balance between... |
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| Mountains are _____ due to erosion. |
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| Erosion _____ with height. |
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| Weight of high mountains overwhelms... |
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| the span of time since Earth's formation |
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| principle of uniformitarianism |
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| Physical processes we observe today also operated in the past at roughly the same rates and were responsible for the formation of geologic features observed in outcrops. |
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| first to articulate the idea of uniformitarianism |
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| based upon order of formation. qualitative method developed hundreds of years ago. |
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| actual number of years since an event, quantitative method, developed more recently, age is assigned a number |
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| horizontality and continuity |
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| strata often form laterally extensive horizontal sheets, subsequent erosion dissects once continuous layers, flat-lying rock layers are unlikely to have been disturbed |
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| each bed is older than the one above and younger than the one below |
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| (super position)in an undeformed sequence of layered rocks... |
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| younger features _____ (cut across) older features. |
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| faults, dikes, erosion, etc., must be _____ than the material that is faulted, intruded, or eroded. |
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| a rock fragment within another |
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| country rock that fell into magma |
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| debris from preexisting rocks |
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| plutonic igneous intrusion |
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| (baked contacts) thermal metamorphism occurs when country rock is invaded by ... |
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Definition
| fossil remnants or traces of once-living organisms are often preserved in ________. |
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| appearance, range, and extinction/ fossil content |
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Definition
| 3 things used for dating/ a time period is recognized by its |
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| first and last appearance |
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| locally, regionally, globally |
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| fossil succession permit correlation of strata |
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| numerical age/relative age |
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| age of a geological feature in years/whether one geological feature is older or younger than another |
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| a time gap in the rock record due to non-deposition or erosion |
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| angular unconformity, nonconformity, disconformity |
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Definition
rocks below an angular unconformity were tilted or folded before the unconformity developed.
cuts across the underlying layers - and the layers below have a different orientation from the layers above.
from where rocks were tilted by either folding or faulting, before being exposed at the Earth's surface. |
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Horizontal marine sediments deformed by orogenesis. • High mountains are eroded away to below sea level. • Sediments deposited horizontally on the erosion surface. |
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| metamorphic or igneous rocks overlain by sedimentary strata |
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| cooled, uplifted, exposed, eroded... sediment is then deposited on eroded surface and lithified |
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| ig/met rocks must have (4 things) |
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| parallel strata bracketing non-deposition... due to an interruption in sedimentation |
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| Earth history is recorded in strata... |
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| summary of geologic information at a particular location (region) depicted as a sequence of sedimentary strata |
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| age relationship between the strata at one locality and the strata at another |
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| _____ correlation is based on rock type. |
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| the relative order in which the rocks occur |
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| a composite stratigraphic column can be constructed, assembled from incomplete sections across the globe, it brackets almost the entirety of earth's history |
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| the largest subdivision of time (100s to 1000s Ma) |
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| subdivisions of an eon (65 to 100s Ma) |
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| subdivision of an era (2 to 70 Ma) |
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| Subdivisions of a period (.011 to 22 Ma) |
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| 3.8 Ga (ga - billion years) |
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| life first appears on earth when |
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| anaerobic single-celled organisms |
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| early life consisted of... |
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| many relative ages can now be assigned actual dates |
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| numerical dating is also called |
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| based on radioactive decay of atoms in minerals... radioactive decay proceeds at a known, fixed rate. radioactive elements act as internal clocks. |
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| when an element changes to a different element |
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| elements that have varying #s of neutrons (always same # of protons) |
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| isotopes that never change |
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| isotopes that spontaneously decay |
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| progresses along a decay chain. decay creates new unstable elements that also decay. decay proceeds to a stable element endpoint. |
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| the isotope that undergoes decay |
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| the product of this decay |
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| time for 1/2 unstable nuclei to decay. |
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| one half of the original parent remains. |
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| one eighth of the original parent remains |
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| measuring the ratio of parent isotopes to daughter isotopes and calculating the amount of time by using the known t1/2. |
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| The age of a mineral can be determined by... |
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| temperature below which isotopes are no longer free to move (in a mineral) |
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| a specific mineral in the rock cooled below the closure temperature. |
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| Isotopic dates specify the time at which... |
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| if rock is reheated, the radiometric clock is... |
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| when rock cooled from the high T down to a low T |
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| annual layers from trees or shells |
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| annual layers in sediment or ice |
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