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| how aldoses become cyclized |
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| how aldose as a hemiacetal gets converted to acetal |
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| is starch easily hydrolized? |
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| an example of carbohydrates being used to distinguish self from non-self |
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Definition
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| is cellulose easily hydrolized? |
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| most prevalent disaccharide in nature |
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| a characteristic of sucrose that's rare among disaccharides |
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| ubiquitous; found everywhere |
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| secondary natural products |
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| the formula for carbohydrates |
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Definition
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| what carbohydrates essentially are |
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Definition
| polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones |
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| the suffix used for carbohydrates |
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Definition
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| the carbon that always has the keto group in a ketose |
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Definition
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Term
| what the anomeric C in a carbohydrate does |
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Definition
| everything an aldehyde would do |
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Term
| major functions of carbohydrates |
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Definition
-energy storage
-structural (supportive tissue) |
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Definition
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| almost all amino acids are (α or β) |
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Definition
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Term
| the types of R groups that can exist on amino acids |
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Definition
-nonpolar
-polar
-basic
-acidic
-aromatic |
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Term
| can humans make aromatic rings? |
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Definition
| for the most part, no, so most amino acids with phenyl group are essential |
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Definition
| a peptide bond in an amino acid chain |
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| some functions of proteins |
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Definition
| -enzymes, catalyst, amylase |
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| the most abundant organic compounds in nature |
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Definition
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| the reaction of photosynthesis |
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Definition
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Most living organisms oxidize glucose to carbon dioxide and water to provide the
energy needed by their cells. Even plants do this with the starch they produce. |
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Definition
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|
Definition
| a form of starch found in animals |
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Term
| the modern definition of carbohydrate |
|
Definition
includes polyhydroxyaldehydes,
polyhydroxyketones, and compounds that are easily hydrolyzed to them. |
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Term
| examples of hydrolysis of disaccharides and polysaccharides |
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Definition
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|
Term
| criteria by which monosaccharides are classified |
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Definition
1. The number of carbon atoms in the carbon chain
2. Whether the sugar contains a ketone or an aldehyde group
3. The stereochemical configuration of the asymmetric carbon atom farthest from
the carbonyl group |
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Term
|
Definition
| sugars with aldehyde groups |
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Term
|
Definition
sugars with ketone groups
the ketone group is usually at C2 |
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| most naturally occurring sugars are (D or L) |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
Sugars that differ only by the stereochemistry at a single
carbon |
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Term
An aldehyde reacts with one molecule
of an alcohol to give a hemiacetal, and with a second molecule of the alcohol to
give an acetal. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| most hemiacetals decompose spontaneously to the aldehyde and the alcohol because... |
|
Definition
| the hemiacetal is not as stable as the acetal |
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Term
| why hemiacetals are rarely isolated |
|
Definition
because the hemiacetal is not as stable as the acetal, and most hemiacetals
decompose spontaneously to the aldehyde and the alcohol |
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Term
| mechanism for formation of a cyclic hemiacetal |
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Definition
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Term
| how a straight-chain carbohydrate turns into a ring |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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|
Definition
[image]
this is an E2 mechanism |
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|
Term
| what enzymes do for the chemicals involved in rxns |
|
Definition
| make collisions more effective |
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Term
|
Definition
| cyclic hemiacetal of a ketone |
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Term
| how a ketohexose goes from straight-chain to cyclic form |
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Definition
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|
Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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|
Term
| α anomer of a carbohydrate |
|
Definition
| the anomer with the anomeric -OH pointing down |
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|
Term
| β anomer of a carbohydrate |
|
Definition
| the anomer with the anomeric -OH pointing up |
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Term
|
Definition
carbohydrate where the H on the anomeric -OH has been replaced by an R group
[image] |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| methyl α-D-glucopyranoside |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| methyl β-D-glucopyranoside |
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|
Term
| the types of R groups that exist on amino acids |
|
Definition
-nonpolar
-polar
-basic
-acidic
-aromatic |
|
|
Term
| for the most part, humans can't make aromatic rings, so most AA's with phenyl groups are essential |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| some functions of proteins |
|
Definition
-enzymes
-structure
-transport
-hormones |
|
|
Term
| examples of proteins being enzymes |
|
Definition
-lysozyme
-amylase
-many others |
|
|
Term
| each rxn in the cell has a specific enzyme dedicated to it. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some examples of proteins functioning in structure |
|
Definition
-α-keratin
-collagen
-myosin
-actin |
|
|
Term
| some examples of proteins functioning in transport |
|
Definition
-hemoglobin
-cytochrome C
-antibodies |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| -transports O2
-4 myoglobin subunits put together |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| some examples of proteins functioning as hormones |
|
Definition
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|
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|
Definition
| helps regulate massive areas of metabolism |
|
|
Term
| not all hormones are proteins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| primary structure of proteins |
|
Definition
| sequence of AA's from C to N terminus |
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|
Term
| AA sequence determines all the functions of a protein |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of secondary structure in proteins |
|
Definition
-α-helix
[image]
-β-sheet
[image]
-random coil |
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Term
|
Definition
part of polypeptide chain with no orderly secondary structure at all
example: segments of α helix or pleated sheet separated by kinks of random coil |
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Term
|
Definition
how the secondary features relate to each other
its complete three-dimensional conformation |
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Term
|
Definition
subunits coming together
association of two or more peptide chains in the complete protein
not in all proteins |
|
|
Term
| bringing -SH groups on cysteine together can cause oxidation such that a disulfide bridge forms |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| hemoglobin made of 4 myoglobins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 major categories of secondary natural products |
|
Definition
-water soluble
-water insoluble |
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|
Term
| types of water insoluble secondary natural products |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
-saponifiable
-non-saponifiable |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
fatty acid
R group contains 12-50 C's |
|
|
Term
| lipids that are saponifiable |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lipids that are non-saponifiable |
|
Definition
| those that are not esters |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
saturated fatty acids come from ______.
unsaturated fatty acids come from ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the alkene group is in an unsaturated fatty acid |
|
Definition
in the middle of the hydrocarbon chain
[image] |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| secondary natural products that don't dissolve in water |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-fuel
-membrane components
-hormones |
|
|
Term
| lipids have significantly more energy per gram than carbohydrates, but carbohydrates provide faster fuel |
|
Definition
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|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they help enzymes carry out their function |
|
|
Term
| Claisen synthesis of thioesters |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| waxes tend to be the hardest lipids to saponify because it's hard to get the aqueous solvent to make the huge -OR group leave |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-protective
-structure
-coating wool |
|
|
Term
| examples of wax being protective |
|
Definition
-fruit surfaces
-wax on car
-coating wool and feathers to keep it dry |
|
|
Term
| examples of wax functioning in structure |
|
Definition
-bee's wax
-making sperm whale more hydrodynamic (no barnacles on front end) |
|
|
Term
| waxes tend to have -OR groups containing 20 or more C's |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are double bonds in the R group of triglycerides cis or trans? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| unsaturated fats easier to digest because there's more functional groups for the enzymes to act on |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| unsat fats become rancid when left alone (rxns with light and leftover food particles) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how unsaturated triglycerides are hydrogenated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| basic structure of a phospholipid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 3 general structures phospholipids can have in a cell membrane |
|
Definition
[image]
the ratio of these depends on the context of each cell (temperature of environment and such) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the basic structure of an α-amino acid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the R and S configuration of an amino acid does not imply optical rotation ((+) or (-)) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Proteins that provide all the essential amino acids in about the right proportions
for human nutrition |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Proteins that are severely deficient in one or more of the essential amino acids |
|
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Term
|
Definition
amino acids found in smaller quantities than standard amino acids
however, they are commonly found in collagen |
|
|
Term
| the acidic part of an amino acid molecule |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the basic part of an amino acid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| acidity and basicity of an amino acid compared to that of carboxylic acid and amine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| protonation and deprotonation of an amino acid in response to change in pH |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| titration curve for an amino acid, in this case, glycine |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
isoelectric pH AKA isoelectric point,
abbreviated pI |
|
Definition
| the pH at which the amino acid has a neutral overall charge |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how a peptide bond is formed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how a disulfide bridge is formed |
|
Definition
[image]
[image]
often occurs between cysteines |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteins that hydrolyze to give only amino acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteins bonded to a nonprotein prosthetic group such as a sugar, a nucleic acid, a lipid, or some other group |
|
|
Term
| some classes of conjugated proteins |
|
Definition
-glycoproteins
-nucleoproteins
-lipoproteins
-metalloproteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
stringy, tough, and usually insoluble in water
They function primarily as structural parts of the organism |
|
|
Term
| primary function of fibrous proteins |
|
Definition
| They function primarily as structural parts of the organism |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
proteins folded into roughly spherical shapes
They usually function as enzymes, hormones, or transport proteins |
|
|
Term
| function of globular proteins |
|
Definition
| usually function as enzymes, hormones, or transport proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein-containing biological catalysts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
they help to regulate processes in the body
example: insulin regulates glucose levels in the blood and its uptake by cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
they bind to specific molecules and transport them in the blood or through the cell membrane
example: hemoglobin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substances that can be extracted from cells and tissues by nonpolar organic solvents |
|
|
Term
| Lipids are classified by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| those that are easily hydrolyzed to simpler constituents |
|
|
Term
| Most complex lipids are... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| esters of long-chain carboxylic acids |
|
|
Term
| the 2 groups of fatty acids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| esters of long-chain alcohols |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| those that are not easily hydrolyzed by aqueous acid or base |
|
|
Term
| three important groups of simple lipids |
|
Definition
-steroids
-prostaglandins
-terpenes |
|
|
Term
[image]
it seems complex lipids are saponifiable and simple lipids are non-saponifiable |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| esters of long-chain fatty acids with long-chain alcohols |
|
|
Term
| general structure of waxes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fatty acid esters of the triol glycerol |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| triglycerides that are solid at room temperature |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| triglycerides that are liquid at room temperature |
|
|
Term
| general structure of triglycerides |
|
Definition
[image]
triglycerides are often mixtures of fatty acids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| base-promoted hydrolysis of the ester linkages in fats and oils |
|
|
Term
| example of how saponification is used to make soap |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sodium or potassium salt of a fatty acid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
clusters of about 100 to 200 soap molecules with their polar “heads” (the carboxylate groups) on the surface of the cluster and their hydrophobic “tails” (the hydrocarbon chains) enclosed within
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mixture of two insoluble phases (grease and water), with one phase dispersed throughout the other in small droplets |
|
|
Term
| how soap emulsifies grease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lipids that contain groups derived from phosphoric acid |
|
|
Term
| general structure of a phospholipid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| compounds whose structures are based on the tetracyclic androstane ring system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-hormones
-emulsifiers
-components of membranes |
|
|
Term
| basic structure of a steroid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fatty acid derivatives that are even more powerful biochemical regulators than steroids |
|
|
Term
| some body systems affected by prostaglandins |
|
Definition
-nervous system
-smooth muscle
-blood
-reproductive system |
|
|
Term
| some functions regulated by prostaglandins |
|
Definition
-blood pressure
-blood clotting
-the allergic inflammatory response
-activity of the digestive system
-the onset of labor |
|
|
Term
| basic structure of a prostaglandin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how prostaglandins are synthesized |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a diverse family of compounds with carbon skeletons composed of five-carbon isopentyl (isoprene) units |
|
|
Term
| some examples of terpenes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
isoprene (top)
isoprene unit (bottom) |
|
|
Term
| examples of terpenes made of isoprene units |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some terpenes with functional groups |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| classification of terpenes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A family of compounds including both terpenes and compounds of terpene origin whose carbon skeletons have been altered or rearranged |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| substituted polymers of the aldopentose ribose that carry an organism’s genetic information |
|
|
Term
| what's more easily hydrolyzed and broken down? DNA or RNA? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the structure of the ribose-phosphate backbone of RNA |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Nucleic acids are assembled on a backbone made up of ribofuranoside units linked by phosphate esters. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A cyclic acetal form of a sugar
-they are generally furanosides (five-membered) or pyranosides (six-membered)
-they exist in anomeric α and β forms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A nonsugar residue bonded to the anomeric carbon of a glycoside (the acetal form of a sugar).
-often bonded to the sugar through oxygen or nitrogen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a β-D-ribofuranoside (a β-glucosidase of D-ribofuranose) whose aglycone is a heterocyclic nitrogen base |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The four common ribonucleosides in RNA |
|
Definition
-cytidine
-uridine
-adenosine
-guanosine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
ribonucleoside that is phosphorylated at its 5′ carbon
(“tied” to phosphate) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
cytidine monophosphate,
CMP (cytidylic acid) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
uridine monophosphate,
UMP (uridylic acid) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
adenosine monophosphate,
AMP (adenylic acid) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
guanosine monophosphate,
GMP (guanidylic acid) |
|
|
Term
| how RNA bases are joined together |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The sequence of nucleotides is called the primary structure of the DNA strand. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how DNA bases are arranged and paired |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
function of cyclic AMP (cAMP)
[image] |
|
Definition
| it is involved in transmitting and amplifying the chemical signals of other hormones |
|
|
Term
function of Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD)
[image] |
|
Definition
it is one of the principal oxidation–reduction reagents in biological systems
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
[image]
this is highly exothermic largely due to the heats of hydration of the products |
|
|
Term
| some examples of steroids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of prostaglandins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some examples of terpenes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
something that retains or preserves moisture; opposite of desiccant
soap is a humectant |
|
|
Term
| some cations that can interact with soap to form hard water |
|
Definition
-Mg
-Fe
-Co
-some other cations |
|
|
Term
| detergent remains water soluble |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| water-insoluble secondary natural products that aren't esters |
|
|
Term
| basic structure of steroids |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some functions of steroids |
|
Definition
-membrane components
-hormones |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-membrane component in animals
-helps membranes maintain certain fluidity and therefore flexibility
-starting material for all steroids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cholesterol in cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| why too much cholesterol is deadly |
|
Definition
| makes blood vessels more rigid and more likely to rupture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| takes cholesterol from peripheral tissue to liver for processing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| takes cholesterol from liver to peripheral tissue |
|
|
Term
| testosterone can get converted to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the thing that causes muscle development (I think androsterone) is the same thing that causes aggression |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| functions of progesterone |
|
Definition
-pregnancy hormone
-prevents another egg from being fertilized |
|
|
Term
| birth control mimics this hormone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
regulates water distribution in the body
example: swelling in bee sting dilutes toxin |
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of prostaglandins |
|
Definition
-very reactive
-hard to study
-made when needed
-potent |
|
|
Term
| some functions of prostaglandins |
|
Definition
-pain
-swelling
-regulation |
|
|
Term
| prostaglandin directly involved in pain sensation when you're burned |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some things prostaglandins regulate |
|
Definition
-blood pressure
-width of bronchi
-width of blood vessels
-width of iris |
|
|
Term
| prostaglandins can also be used for contraception |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how aspirin relieves pain |
|
Definition
| stops one of the prostaglandins from forming |
|
|
Term
| terpenes aka essential oils |
|
Definition
| liquids that have a smell (essence) and aren't water-soluble |
|
|
Term
| all terpenes are based on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| terpenes always contain C and H, but can contain O |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| terpenes don't always have rings |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
thy is this not a terpene?
[image] |
|
Definition
| because it has 5 C atoms in a straight chain; doesn't resemble isoprene |
|
|
Term
| β-kerotene is metabolized into retinol, which is directly related to vision |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| excess water-soluble vitamins can be urinated out, but fat-soluble vitamins are more dangerous in excess |
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Definition
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Definition
| secondary natural product that contains N |
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Term
| some characteristics of alkaloids |
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Definition
-predominantly plant materials
-generally have bitter taste (possibly defense mechanism)
-basic due to N
-seem to be dead end in metabolism
-have stark responses in humans |
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Term
| some examples of alkaloids |
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Definition
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Definition
| Methyl α-D-glucopyranoside |
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Term
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Definition
| ethyl α-D-fructofuranoside |
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Definition
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Definition
| basic structure of a steroid |
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Definition
| basic structure of a prostaglandin |
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