Term
| Which branch of primates are more likely to be solitary? Is this like most mammals? |
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Definition
| Most mammals live alone. Strepsirrhines (prosimians which include nocturnal lemurs and lorises) are often solitary. |
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Term
| Which primates are most likely to be social? |
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Definition
| Haplorrhines, which are anthropoids and include prosimian tarsiers as well as new world monkeys and old world monkeys (lesser apes, chimpanzees, gorillas, orangutans) |
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Term
| What are the potential costs that are risks of sociality? |
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Definition
Competition
Contagion - transmission of disease
Cuckoldry - a male raising young that are not actually his own
Inbreeding
Cannibalism
Infanticide |
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Term
| What are benefits of sociality? |
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Definition
Protection versus predators
Better access to resources
Access to potential mates/cooperative partners |
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Term
| What are the strategies of nocturnal primates? |
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Definition
Hide during the day
Park infants while feeding
Solitary
Quiet
Cryptic |
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Term
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Definition
FEATURES OF HANDS & FEET
Opposable big toe
grasping hands
sensitive finger tips
flat nails
FEATURES OF SENSORY ORGANS
highly developed sense of vision
eyes moved forward in head
stereoscopic vision
unspecialized olfactory senses
FEATURES OF LIFE HISTORY
small litters
long pregnancy
long juvenile period
long mother infant bond
long life span
LARGE BRAIN
LIVE IN GROUPS |
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Term
| Why is sociality and effective an3-preDator strategy? |
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Definition
Detection - more eyes to detect predator
Dilution - more individuals makes it less likely for anyone individual to be caught
Deterrence - Defensive weaponry and mobbing in groups |
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Term
| What are the strategies of diurnal primates? |
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Definition
| Defensive weaponry, mobbing, sleep in trees/cliffs, large body size, vigilant, alarm calls, interspecific associations ( for example, two species may associate to reduce predator risk: diana monkeys watch for ground predators while the red colobuses watch for eagles) |
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Term
| What are interspecific associations? |
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Definition
| Associations between species which are mutually beneficial, as with the diana monkey and red colobus. |
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Term
| What is in a primate diet? |
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Definition
| Carbs from fruit and gums. Protein from insects, leaves and other animals, eggs. Fats and oils from seeds, nuts, and other animals. Vitamins and minerals from plant foods. |
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Term
| What factors are most important for reproductive success in females versus males? |
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Definition
| Females rely on access to nutrition, as pregnancy, lactation, and conception are all very energy consuming. Males rely more on access to females than nutrition. |
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Term
| What is a dominance relationship? |
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Definition
| When one individual consistently defeats another in contest competition, it produces dominance relationship. |
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Term
| Pair-wise dominance relationships produce what? and why? |
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Definition
| They produce dominance heirarchies because each individual knows who it can and cannot defeat. |
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Term
| What will females do if dominance rank affects access to resources? |
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Definition
| They will strive for a higher rank, and thus females may benefit from help in competitive encounters. Help is useful because of power in numbers. Thus an alliance of two low-rank individuals may outrank another individual above them. |
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Term
| What happens if females rely on alliances? |
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Definition
| If this happens, they will develop relationships with allies and only groom/associate with certain females. Often they may prefer kin as allies, as they share genes. Females will thus become philopatic (stay with the group they were born into) while males disperse to prevent inbreeding. |
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Term
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Definition
| it is when individuals reside in the group they were born in for their entire lifespan. |
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Term
| Why would a primate be territorial? |
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Definition
| To defend its mates and resources. |
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Term
| When will home ranges overlap? When will they not? |
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Definition
| They do not overlap in primates that are more aggressively territorial, and may overlap in less aggressive territorial species. |
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Term
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Definition
| Food is distributed fairly evenly and is not worth fighting for. Scramble to get enough food, no direct competition. |
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Term
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Definition
| Resources are scarce and valuable, worth fighting over. Contest access to particular resources |
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Term
| Possible relationship between food, competition, and social behavior. |
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Definition
| Concentrated collections of food result in alliances and hierarchies. Spread out resources result in no bonds/alliances, unstable hierarchy and male female dispersal. |
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Term
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Definition
| assumes that animals will adopt foraging strategies that maximize caloric intake per unit time (but does not imply conscious reasoning, deliberate planning, or intent) |
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Term
| Costs of female reproduction |
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Definition
There is a high investment for female mammals. They carry offspring, nourish after birth, and paternal care is often quite low. It is very expensive in terms of energy.
It is also very expensive in terms of time, many produce one infant every two years or so, and a substantial fraction die before reaching reproductive age. |
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Term
| Components of female fitness |
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Definition
Length of reproductive career
Infant survivorship
interbirth interval = time between births
Rank |
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Term
| Maternal strategies for reproductive success |
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Definition
Care - nourishment, transportation, warmth, protection from predators. Mothers have limited amount of care to give because of limited reproductive career. This means they must balance quantity and quality of offspring.
competition - compete directly for food, compete via dominance rank, rank sometimes correlated with reproductive success.
cooperation - in territorial species, females jointly confront members of other groups. often group size correlated with success in intergroup encounters. Alliances may also be formed within groups. Cooperation also reduces the costs of rearing offspring, as other group members can help care for infants. |
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Term
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Definition
| when other group members care for an infant as well |
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Term
| Male reproductive strategies |
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Definition
| Degree of male investment varies among primate species. This is a trade-off between mating effort and parenting effort. Obviously will invest more when benefits derived from extra matings are less than benefits derived from providing care. |
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Term
| When will males invest in offspring? |
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Definition
Difficult to find additional males - females widely spaced in time, females mate synchronously
Fitness of kids raised alone are low - infants are very big, litter size >1, high risk of predation |
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Term
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Definition
Special form of natural selection in which traits are favored that increase success in competition for mates
sexually selected traits are most pronounced in sex with most limited access to mates. Sexual selection can generate intersexual selection and intrasexual selection |
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Term
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Definition
| selection favors traits that make individuals more attractive (ornamentation, coloration, behaviors) |
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Term
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Definition
| selection favors traits that make individuals more successful in same-sex competitions for access to reproductive opportunities (tusks, horns, size, antlers) |
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Term
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Definition
| When males look one way and females look another way. Is the result of male-male competition. |
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Term
| Rank and RS in multi-male groups |
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Definition
| Reproductive success in multi-male groups usually has to do with dominance rank, which is a function of size and strength. High rank males monopolize reproducing females. |
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Term
| competition in one-male groups |
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Definition
males compete for access to groups of females, outsiders exert constant pressure on resident males.
tenure of resident males is often short |
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Term
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Definition
| temporary stopping of menstrual cycles during post-natal period |
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Term
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Definition
| if infant dies, female resumes reproductive cycle immediately. It is a sexually selected strategy, which means that it will be linked to changes in male residence or status. Males will kill unweaned, but won't kill their own. Infanticidal males will gain reproductive benefits. |
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Term
| Counterstrategies to infanticide |
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Definition
fathers and adults present at conception defend infants.
Female promiscuity used to confuse males about paternity. |
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Term
| Controversy over infanticide |
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Definition
People often confuse "is" and "ought"
just because it is adaptive doesn't mean its morally right. This leads to concerns over whether species should be conserved if they are acting in such an aggressive way |
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Term
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Definition
| According to Darwin's postualtes, such a behavior cannot be selected for, as it reduces fitness to self and increases fitness of others. |
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Term
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Definition
| Helping related others who share the same genes |
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Term
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Definition
| altruism reciprocated by recipient of benefit |
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Term
| requirements of cooperation |
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Definition
| requires non-random interaction, selection at the level of the individual |
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Term
| Kin selection and Hamilton's Rule |
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Definition
If altruists aid kin, they help those who may carry the same gene for altruism.
Kin selection occurs when benefits to recipient x relatedness > cost to actor
this is Hamilton's Rule: br < c where r is coefficient of relatedness |
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Term
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Definition
| primates show favorable behavior priamrily to those it is related to. This is seen in grooming patterns, alliances/coalitions, |
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Term
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Definition
uses contextual clues - infants in contact with mother, siblings connected through mother
phenotypic matching - recognize kin through smell or likeness to themselves |
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Term
| Familiarity and kin recognition |
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Definition
mothers don't seem to recognize their own infants at birth
Within a few weeks, mothers discriminate between own infant and strange infant. |
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Term
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Definition
| experiment on kin recognition wherre mother will accept strange infants of different sex, age, and species |
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Term
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Definition
| mother-infant associations may also be used to recognize other maternal relatives, as they're closeness with mother allows them familiarity with relatives. |
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Term
| Rule of thumb for paternity |
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Definition
| if male monopolizes matings, all infants born during his tenure = his offspring. Same rule allows those infants to recognize paternal siblings. |
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Term
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Definition
altruism can be exchanged through nonkin when
1. proximity, frequent opportunities to interact
2. keep track of help given and received (memory)
3. Must only help if received help (contingent, discriminating behavior)
Noentheless, there is strong evidence for kin selection and mixed evidence for reciprocal altruism. |
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Term
| Life history theory of primate intelligence |
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Definition
possession of large and expensive brain has effects on primate life histories. Brains are expensive to build and maintain.
As brain size increases, so does life expectancy
Brain size and longevity is associated with delayed maturation and lower fertility. Life history patterns are the product of tradeoffs between current and future reproduction, fast/short to long/slow |
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Term
| Selection delays maturity until when? |
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Definition
| It delays maturity until the payoffs of reproduction are greater than the payoffs of continued growth. Delayed reproduction only pays off if mortality is low |
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Term
| Benefits of neocortex, brain |
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Definition
Learning, problem-solving. Flexibility when environment changes rapidly. Flexibility and problem-solving favored by complex ecological niche.
Flexibility and problem-solving in social interactions: Social intelligence hypothesis. |
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Term
| Ecological theory of intelligence |
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Definition
| Finding food is complicated, where is it, is it safe, when is it available, how to process food (soem find food in places that most animals wouldn't think to search), cognitive maps give mental representation of location availability, and quality of things in the environment. This isn't an entirely capable explanation however, as many small-brained animals also do these things |
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Term
| Social theory of intelligence |
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Definition
| social challenges favor larger brains. Primates know about their own relationships as well as the relationships of others. They keep track of group membership and recognize others as individuals. They know which individuals will be most helpful them in a fight. Can recognize the voices of others, mother recognizes child's scream, others look at mother when they hear the scream. |
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Term
| Third-party knowledge and Theory of Mind |
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Definition
| Monkeys can predict what others will do. They often grunt when they approach others and are a reliable predictor of peaceful behavior. The ability for one to understand others' thoughts is called "theory of mind". But they actually show little understanding of what others know: don't practice deception, and thir understanding of relationships seems to come primarily from associative learning. Apes are a little different in this respect in that they can discern others' intent, recognize self, can deceive and do political maneuvering, and alert others to things they have not seen. |
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Term
| Brief history of hominid fossils |
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Definition
Paleocene: primate like mammals
Eocene: 1st true primates like strepsirrhines
oligocene: primates like OWMs
Miocene: apes |
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Term
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Definition
| We only have 3% of theprimate record, material on Earth is not only likely to be destroyed, but few environments are actually conducive to preservation |
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Term
| First appearance of primates |
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Definition
| 65 million years ago during the Paleocene epoch of the tertiary period of the cenozoic era |
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Term
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Definition
| rodent sized, primate-like mammals from Paleocene |
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Term
| First true primates like strepsirrhines |
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Definition
| appeared in eocene, with larger brains than plesiadapiforms, opposable toes, forward facing eyes |
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Term
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Definition
| 34 million years ago, during the oligocene epoch, when many parts of the world became colder and drier |
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Term
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Definition
| apes flourish during the warm, wet Miocene. During this epoch, apes filled most of the ecological niches of extant monkeys and diversified. |
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Term
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Definition
| early mammals believed to be ancestral to earliest primates (megazostrodon, thrinaxodon) |
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Term
| angiosperms during paleocene |
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Definition
| angiosperms become more abundant during the paleocene, corresponding to earliest primates opened an ecological niche. |
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Term
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Definition
prosimians - eocene
monkeys - oligocene
apes - miocene |
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Term
| Earth's climate cooled and dried drastically over the last 5 million years |
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Definition
| This climate change opened up the savanna as an ecological niche. |
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Term
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Definition
| features of pelvis, femur, and feet, as well as placement of the foramen magnum in bipedal species, the base of the neck |
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Term
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Definition
| The bowl shaped flaring at the top of the pelvis, in bipeds, it is broader |
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Term
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Definition
| has longer neck for muscle attachment. Lower end of femur angled to meet lower leg bone |
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Term
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Definition
| to walk efficiently, knees must be close to the center line of the body. |
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Term
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Definition
| has arches designed for shock absorption |
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Term
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Definition
| bipedal, no gap between canine and PM, dentition not like apes, 7-6 mya in Africa |
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Term
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Definition
| dated to 6mya in Kenya bipedal, thick enamel on molars, thigh bones are more like humans' than chimps. teeth are like chimp teeth |
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Term
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Definition
| 4-5 mya in africa woodland habitat, distinguished canines, relatively small molars, thinner enamel, but still thicker than modern apes. Bipedal, canines smaller and not sharpened by lower canine. Sexual dimorphism, modern toe bone, generalized diet, larger cranial capacity, limb proportions more like monkey than ape, wide ilium suggests bipedal. Mostly palm walked, not knuckle walked |
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Term
| Shared traits of australopiths |
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Definition
| Bipedal, still adept in trees, small bones (much shorter than modern human), head bones intermediate between apes and later hominids. Had ape like faces and ape sized brains. Sexual dimorphism, ape-sized brains, woodland/scrub/grassland habitat. Grew up faster than modern humans do.Had jaws that stick out (subnasal prognathism) Larger canines which became increasingly smaller. Small molars |
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Term
| Behavioral evidence of bipedality |
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Definition
| 3.5 mya, 2 creatures walked through a bed of wet volcanic ash. Their footprints are still left behind. |
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Term
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Definition
| bipedal apes with very big molars. Paranthropines had very big teeth, particularly MOLARS. this morphology is related to diet. Larger temporalis muscles to chew, and larger zygomatic bone arch to accomodate the muscle. Sagittarial crest at the top of the skull allowed for greater attachment of these much larger muscles. The wear patterns on their teeth suggest that they ate hard things, like seeds, nuts, and tough plant material. they may have eatern meat too. |
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Term
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Definition
| small brain like chimps, small molars like australopithecines, face broad and flat like P. boisei of paranthropuses. |
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Term
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Definition
| We don't know that S. Tchadnesis, orrorin, or ardipithecus are related to later fossil species, or if any of these are ancestral to homo |
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Term
| sahelanthropus tchadensis |
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Definition
| Earliest known hominid, from 7-6 mya. No prognathism, flat face, foramen magnum indicative of bipedalism. No gap between canine and premolars, massive brow, like many later hominids and gorillas |
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Term
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Definition
6 mya
ancestral: chimp teeth, brain, arms and fingers suited for climbing
derived: thick enamel on molars, long femoral neck like in bipedal hominids |
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Term
| Ardipithecus ramidus and A. kadabba |
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Definition
4-5mya,
Ancestral: relatively small molars, larger canines, enamel is thinner, but thicker than most modern apes.
Derived: bipedalism based on foramen magnum, pelvis and toes bones |
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Term
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Definition
| 4-2 mya , prognathic face, generalized diet, fast development. Bipedal, still adept in trees, small bodies, head bones intermediate between apes and later hominids. Ape sized brains, pronounced sexual dimorphism |
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Term
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Definition
| prognathis face, diet of hard items. Huge molars, sagittarial crest for larger temporalis (temple) muscles, zygomatic arch to accomodate larger muscles. P.boisei had flat face |
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Term
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Definition
| 3.5 mya. flat face like P. boisei. small teeth. small brain like chimps, small molars like australopithecines |
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Term
| Hunting is closely related to what other trait? |
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Definition
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