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| looks at the materials that compose the earth & tries to understand the processes that operate on the surface and within the earth |
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| tries to understand the origin of the earth & its development through time, & piece together a chronology of the physical & biological changes during the earth's history |
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| landscapes formed primarily by great catastophism |
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| the physical, chemical, & biological laws that operate today also operated in the geologic past |
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| the universe began with a gigantic explosion where matter was created and flung part over an expanding volume of space |
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| explains the formation of solar systems |
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| form when gas & dust come together in rotating clouds |
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| massive enough for nuclear reactions |
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| heavy elements sank to the center & the light elements floated to the surface (core/mantle/crust) |
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| unifying theory of geology that explains many of the earth's geologic processes & features |
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| earth's outer, rigid layer (strong) |
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| partially, molten region of the mantle (weak) |
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| plates move apart, rocks created,seafloor spreading at mid-ocean ridges |
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| plates move together, rocks destroyed, subduction zones or moutain building |
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| plates slip past eachother, rocks neither created/destroyed |
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| atoms with the same number of protons but different number of neutrons |
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| atom loses a negative electron and becomes positively charged |
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| atom gains a negative electron and becomes negatively charged |
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| elements that already have a filled outer shell are already chemically stable & electrically neutral so they don't react much |
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| naturally, occuring, inorganic, solid elements or compounds, with a definite composition and a regular internal crystal structure |
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| basic building block of silicate minerals |
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| interaction of plate tectonics and climate systems |
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| form when magma rises, cools & crystalizes |
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| hot melt made up of rock-forming materials and volatiles held in solution by pressure |
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| magma that reaches the surface and loses its gases |
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| (volcanic) from the earth |
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| liquid to solid, ordered & bonded |
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| solid to liquid, no order or bonds |
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| how different minerals crystallize at different temperatures |
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| Ca-rich plag changes to Na-rich plag by substitution in the plag mineral. If cooling is fast enough, complete substitution can't occur and you get crystals with Ca-rich interiors surrounded by zones of progressively more Na-rich plag |
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| a mineral forms, then as temperature drops the mineral reacts with the magma to form a different mineral |
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| fractional crystallization |
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| process of separation of minerals by differential crystallization; shows how one magma can generate several different igneous rocks |
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| the structure that forms from the accumulation of materials that erupts at the surface |
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| measurement of the flow of magma (resistance to flow) |
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| eruption of magma from a long crack rather than a single vent |
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broad, flat shield-like shape formed from mafic/basalt lavas
ex. Hawaiian islands |
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| hot, fluid lavas form a smooth, ropy texture as the top "crust" cools but lava underneath continues to flow |
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| lavas that have lost their gases & thus are less fluid produce jagged, blocked, jumbled flows |
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| lava extruded underwater forms bulbous-shaped pillow lavas with a glassy surface and a coarser-grained, more slowly cooled interior |
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| less mafic, more silica-rich lavas are more viscous so flow less readily. They're extruded and pile up close to the vent forming steep-sided domes, which often "stop-up" the vent |
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| form when pyroclasts fall close to the vent & pile up in symmetrical cone-shaped heaps |
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| pieces of magma & rock that are flung out of volcano |
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| built up in alternating layers as pyroclasts then lava then pyroclasts, etc. are erupted over a long period of time. This produces a large, steep-sided cone |
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| large depression in volcano |
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| classified based on shape (tabular or massive) |
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| characteristics: sills/ dikes/ batholiths |
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sills: tabular, concordant
dikes: tabular, discordant
batholiths: massive, discordant |
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| produces a magma that is more felsic than parent rock |
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along mid-ocean ridges where sea floor spreading occurs (fluid)
ex. Iceland |
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| when an oceanic plat is subducted beneath a continental plate, mafic rock & wet sediments are carried down & partial melting occurs to produce intermediate magma. (intermediate) |
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| a "hot spot" or mantle plume in the middle of a plate. Hot spots under oceanic crust give mafic magma, under continental crust remelting of more silica-rich rock give a more felsic magma. (thick) |
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| disintegration & decomposition of rock at or near the surgace of the earth |
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| incorporation & transportation of material by a mobile agent, usually water, wind or ice |
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| transfer of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity |
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| rock is broken into smaller & smaller pieces but each retains the characteristics of the original material. This gives many small pieces from a single large one. It is important to not that breaking increases the surface area available for chemical weathering, thus speeding it |
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| water expands as it freezes, producing a tremendous outward force. |
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| when erosion exposes large igneous bodies, concentric slabs of rock begin to break loose. |
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| caused by continued weathering which causes layers to break off |
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bacteria, plants burrowing animals, and humans can all break up rock.
ex. roots grow into cracks and as they grow, wedge rock apart. |
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| processes that alter the internal structure of minerals by removing and/or adding elements |
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| rain in the atomosphere dissolves some carbon dioxide but can also react with other compounds to form strong acids |
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| more exposed surface means faster weathering |
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| some minerals are more resistant than others under similar conditions. Silicate minerals weather is about the order they crystallize (Bowens Reaction series). |
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| temperature and rainfall: weathering is most rapid in warm, wet climates (tropics) where chemical weathering is easy. |
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| a layer of rock & mineral fragments produced by weathering |
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| a combination of mineral and organic matter (decayed plants and animals called humus), water, and air. (part of regolith that supports the growth of plants) |
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| soil-forming processes operate from the surface downward so there are variations in the composition, texture, structure and color which occur at varying depths & become more pronounced with time. |
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| different zones/ layers of soil |
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| mainly organic matter, upper part primarily plant litter, lower part partially decomposed organic matter (humus) where plant structures cant be identified |
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| "topsoil"- largely mineral matter but lots of biological activity, humus generally present |
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| "topsoil"- largely mineral matter but lots of biological activity, humus generally present |
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| "subsoil"- much of the material removed from A is deposited in B, so the B horizon is called the "zone of accumulation". More fine clay particles in B enhance water retention. If there is lots of clay, you get hardpan, a dense, impermeable layer. B has much less living organisms/organic matter than A but more than C |
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| partially altered parent material and little if any organic matter. The parent material is easily recognized even if its radically altered in the solum. |
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| soil formation (parent material) |
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| bedrock or unconsolidated deposits, type of material and its rate of weathering |
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| more time gives a thicker soil layer that is less like the parent rock |
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| most important; determines whether physical or chemical weathering will be dominant. |
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| influences the water content & the amount of erosion |
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