Term
|
Definition
| single self-replicating molecule is not as efficient as a federation-may not be good at everything nec. to create a complex organism |
|
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Term
|
Definition
DNA polymerase checks copying accuracy and cuts
out miscopies, redundant code, T replacing U eliminates common error |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| descent with modification |
|
Definition
| children inherit genes of parents, but not perfectly so |
|
|
Term
| differential reproduction |
|
Definition
| some genese are more equipped to be passed on than others |
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Term
|
Definition
| inheritance, genetic variation, differential reproduction |
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Term
|
Definition
| 1) make mult copies of gene 2) introduce slight changes 3) test each copy, choose best 4) repeat |
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Term
|
Definition
| rate of natural selection- how quickly do org. reproduce, how harsh is selection process |
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Term
|
Definition
set of environmental conditions and
opportunities for survival. Habitat, food source, competitors |
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Term
|
Definition
| process of forming new gene federations (species) which exploit niche |
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Term
|
Definition
| stable situation to period of rapid change to another long stability, etc... |
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Term
|
Definition
| feathers for warmth in dinosaurs, long feathers make gliding possible (exploitation of air as a niche)->flying |
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Term
|
Definition
| membrane w dna and other structures floating around. limited bc can't absorb much energy through membrane, can't get larger bc volume grows faster than surface area |
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Term
|
Definition
| 1000X bigger than prok, have mitochondria. giant factory, organized |
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Term
|
Definition
| produce ATP for cell. remnants of cellular invaders. still have own DNA (37 genes). leave free O2 (free radicals) which destroy structure |
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Term
|
Definition
| cell chooses to die as result of damage induced on dna by mitoc. ->senescene is a deal the earliest eukaryotes made |
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Term
|
Definition
| no evidence senescence, grow more fertile |
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Term
|
Definition
| subject to stronger selection |
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Term
|
Definition
| waits to let them reproduce until older- selects genes that are healthy for longer |
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|
Term
| why mitoc. have uniparental inheritence |
|
Definition
| if mitoc. dna were allowed to be diverse, they would compete w each other, at expense of parent cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| algae and fungi, no obvious sex differences – two ‘mating types' |
|
|
Term
| examples of non-binary sex |
|
Definition
| ‘split gill’ mushroom – 28,000 mating types Slime mold – 13 sexes |
|
|
Term
| two leading theories of why there's sex |
|
Definition
| allows offspring w/out mutations even if parents had, keeps disease/parasites from adapting to specific niche |
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Term
|
Definition
| can choose asex. or sex. reproduction. sex. rep. ones are less infested w/ black spot worm parasites |
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Term
|
Definition
| a gene that can help other copies of itself will proliferate. |
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Term
|
Definition
| brother- 1/2. cousin- 1/8. aunt- 1/4. parents- 1/2. hamilton's rule- rB>C |
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Term
|
Definition
| special case of kin selection- extreme relatedness, high reproduction potential |
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Term
|
Definition
| don't recognize eggs, but do rec. chicks |
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Term
|
Definition
| fertilized->female->worker, unfertilized->male->drone. bees, wasps, ants. females share 3/4 genes with sisters, 1/2 with sons, so care more about helping queen than own young |
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|
Term
| ability to predict future |
|
Definition
| adaptive trait, but only in some niches. defines human niche. |
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Term
|
Definition
| winner gets it, but loser pays too- never ends. example of escalating selfishness |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A way of analyzing situations in which the outcome of your decision depends on both how you choose and your opponent chooses |
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Term
|
Definition
| example of no dominant strategy |
|
|
Term
| assumptions of game theory |
|
Definition
| everyone knows rules, everyone makes best response to others' actions, everything that effects decision is in game |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| fixed amount of winnings. von neumman proves there will always be a strategy that makes each player happiest |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| bank pays out- diff bt what is good for the group and good for the individual |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| no one shows up bc that's better in both cases for each |
|
|
Term
| axelrod broadens prisoner's dilemma |
|
Definition
| iterated pd, players can identify each other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cooperate, then copy last move |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| never defect first; limit punishment |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| donate blood to ones who didn't get any, remember who doesn't donate back |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| primary expansions of human brain: language, face recognition, emotional interaction. language:medium for expression, creating alliances, detecting lying and cheating. understanding each other: cognitive arms race |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cooperation can evolve from selfish genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| set of strategies that, when played by everyone, no one has incentive to change. essentially an ESS. for example, always defect. |
|
|
Term
| Polymerase Chain Reaction |
|
Definition
| make large # copies of specific DNA strand. Key point: in a very short time, test tube is filled with millions of copies of the particular DNA of interest. target sequences grow exponentially, so you get much more than superfluous. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| amplification, forensics, mummies, neanderthals, detection of hereditary diseases, paternity testing, cloning genes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| millions of copies of a portion of dna strand (specified by endpoints) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecules that recognize start and end nucleotide sequences- guide polymerase to attach to strand |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| repeated pattern of 4 nucleotides- don't code for anything useful we can identify- used in dna fingerprinting |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| huge memory capacity, dissipate little energy, essentially parallel |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| roads are complements of two city codes. Answer will be expressed as a DNA strand which is a combination of cities and roads. 1) generate all possible routes. 2) select itineraries that start/end with right cities (PCR) 3) select itineraries w/ right # cities (electrophoresis) 4) select itineraries that have all cities. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Select strands that have affinity for each city. Result: set of strands that encode the problem solution |
|
|
Term
| why dna computing doesn't solve tsp |
|
Definition
| problem isn't time anymore, but supplies |
|
|
Term
| in computation, _ is always better |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| studies bacteria-acttacking virus- ring DNA strand, mapped out locations of genes (sometimes overlapping) ->accelerating sequencing rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| advances in software/hardware-sequences bacterium. frustrated w/ slow hgp founds celera |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 21000. less than many plants. found by open reading frames. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| full genome, made of dna from both parents |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1st diploid- amazing heterogeneity (44% genes differ bt mother & father's contribution) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cyp mutations, slow drug metabolizing, Not much effect from antipsychotics, antidpressants |
|
|
Term
| single nucleotide polymorphism; indel; inverstion |
|
Definition
| 1 base pair variation; insertion or deletion; flips horizontally |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| little evolutionary pressure->drifting |
|
|
Term
| alignment; genetic distance |
|
Definition
| which sequences from diff genomes have common ancestor? process of finding which bases/amacids conserved after mutations; how far apart are two diff sequences? |
|
|
Term
| how can we tell 2 diff genes are 2 versions of same gene? |
|
Definition
| similar, but not identical. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pre-cambrian- controls 2000 other genes- contains homeobox. like aniridia & others, has HOX domain |
|
|
Term
| mrDNA mutation in as a tool |
|
Definition
| point mutations can be used to trace lineages in coding regions; fraction of bases changed can be used to trace lineages in D-Loop; assuming constant rate of change, gives time since most recent ancestor |
|
|
Term
| currently paleoanthropology theory |
|
Definition
| seems that there were five species of human, the last four of which migrated broadl |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| evolved there 150,000 years ago |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
single large migration c. 2 Mil yrs ago followed by
evolution in place – African, European, and Asian populations evolved separately |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| circular, linear, sealed ends- basically nucleic acid and protein coat. not alive- no metabolism or chem activity outside of host, don't self replicate (ie code for own structures) |
|
|
Term
| computer assisted biology |
|
Definition
| algorithms that easily let us do alignment |
|
|
Term
| viruses take over metabolism |
|
Definition
| hijack transcription/translation, use host dna polymerase by tricking cell into thinking its dividing. move in to nucleus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fecundity: makes animal aggressive, bites, rabies spread through saliva |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Eucaryotic parasite- rats lose fear of cats when infected bc only completes life cycle in cats |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dead end in males so might: get sperm to only fertilize eggs of infected females, enable females to breed w/out males, kill male offspring. essential to african riverblindness nematoad |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| copies info from rna to dna, releases viral rna and reverse transcriptase, cleaves to dna and starts to be transcripted |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| gene that outcompetes its alleles in next generation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mouse w/ drive in males but normal in females. causes normal sperm to be dysfunctional. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (transposon) carries message "copy me and put me back into DNA in new place" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| produce dna from own rna and insert it at random |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| junk dna. mimics recognition site from LINE-1 to get copied. implicated in cancer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| highly repetitive. 15% whole human genome. can ->hemophilia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| interspersed nonsense elements. spliced out before sent to ribosome. all have a few nucleotide sequences in common; separated parts of the same gene |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| complex splicing molecule |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| misfolded protein, causes others to misfold. form of self replication. ->madcow, kuru |
|
|
Term
| for an information system to be hackable |
|
Definition
| has to have copying mechanism, be able to move info from place to place |
|
|
Term
| how prions, viruses and transposons cam about |
|
Definition
| random variation in the genome |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| don't require humans to propagate- do not live on harddrive, only running form |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| exist in code on document, requires human to spread |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| melissa 1990- emails porn sites to friends; love bug 2000- sends passwords to author; mafiaboy 2000- denial of service attacks on cnn, yahoo, ebay, amazon; anna kornukova 2000- visual toolkits available |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mainly viruses to mainly worms |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| search for computers to break into, guess password |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| find hosts on internet at random, target web sites, firewalls |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| march 2004- first destruction- deletes random part of harddrive |
|
|
Term
| assumptions of virus spreading |
|
Definition
| population is large, each encoumter has fixed probability will infect other (fixed virulence), constant probability people likely to meet each other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| grows exponentially. N=# individuals infected per time unit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| number of edges connecting a node |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| if two people are friends, their friends are likely to know each other too |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| virus spreading on a lattice |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wichita to cambridge- usually 6 degrees |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| circle- distance bt people drops fast with only a few shortcuts |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| currently inoculating randomly, but most efective would be to inoculate high degree nodes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cannibalistic societies- women/children eat last, get brains. nothing living associated with it so hard to treat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| allows you to turn a crank and create new virus ; kids using these |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| virulence planes out bc no more computers to infect |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (small world) our network, somewhere between lattice and clique |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| avg # connections to others (actors- 29) |
|
|
Term
| random mixing; lattice mixing |
|
Definition
| fast, exponential speed; slow, polynomial speed |
|
|
Term
| examples longevity, fecundity, copy-fidelity in memes |
|
Definition
| winston tastes good, citation count, dogma |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| frequently broadcasts infectious memes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| law of the few, stickiness factor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
system that collects potential viruses, transports
them back to the central facility, where they are analyzed, and
updated virus defs distributed. This fact is true for either bio or electronic viruses. |
|
|
Term
| the more variable/chaotic the environment, the harder to survive w/out |
|
Definition
| memory, prediction abilities |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brains control behavior (purposeful movement on short timescales) |
|
|
Term
| example info processing w/out neurons |
|
Definition
| e coli have receptors in cell walls, communicate chemically to flagella, e coli orient to gradients- kind of memory. 1 bit of info determines roll or tumble |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| integration, transmission information from one location in body to another. chemical coding in, electrical coding inside, chemical coding out |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where information integrated |
|
|
Term
| sensory neurons; motor neurons |
|
Definition
| connect to sense organs, bring stimuli to cns; connect to muscles and glands, bring stimuli out of cns |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| two neurons in close proximity- chemicals diffuse across gap quickly |
|
|
Term
| electrical coding in neuron |
|
Definition
| big development brought by neuron. allows for rapidity |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hydrophobic and hydrophilic sides. proteins embedded. allow certain things to pass through |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| at rest, neuron constantly pumping Na+ & K+ out of cell->negative inside. creates a voltage, or tendency for current to flow |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sticks all the way through cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| movement of ions across membrane that propagates down axon. temporary, digital code, |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteins that change shape in presence of voltage. opening in one region is caused by loss of resting potential (depolarization) in another- dominoes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| AP in presynaptic neuron causes release of neurotransmitters->affects ion balance in postsynaptic neuron->excited or inhibited AP in postsyn. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| measures stimulation, decides whether to generate Action Potential. ie if sum of inputs above threshold, new ap generated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individual firings don't carry information, only the rate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| individual neuron has too small range of activation levels. important encoding done by collections using combinatorial code, vectors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when numbers used in combinatorial codes. natural isomorphism bt vectors and points in space. how our brain presented with info |
|
|
Term
| why is the brain so good at face recognition? |
|
Definition
| perhaps bc encoding in face space |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| computer simulations of simplified neurons. answer question, how can collections of neurons produce high level functions? activation level and synaptic weight. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| X1W1+X2W2. if potential>threshold, X>0 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neural networks do this. input-set of #, output-diff. set of #. pattern of connections, weights determine transformation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| given particular input vector, network generates associated output vector |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| regions in vector space (facial subregion, male subregion, etc) |
|
|
Term
| distributed representation |
|
Definition
| correct classification not usually marred by failing of a few neurons |
|
|
Term
| ANN activation level; weight |
|
Definition
| number that represents neuron firing at specific rate; extent to which one neuron causes firing of another |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| each cell connected to each input & each output cell, every connection has a weight- can't solve by hand like diagonal problem |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use examples to get network to pick right set of weights |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| see whether testing the network worked on images never seen before |
|
|
Term
| seven features of consciousness |
|
Definition
| short-term memory, sensory inputs, steerable attention, capacity for alternative interpretations of data, disappears in deep sleep, reappears in dreaming, Places all sensory modalities into a single unified experience |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| program that brain turns on and off. recurrent neural network |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| bagel-shaped structure in center of brain, connections to and from all parts of cortex. proposed by rudolfo llina as seat of consciousness. lesions to it ->vegetation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| theoretically possible if we understand how brain encodes information. for ex, control electronic devices |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brain stem stroke, no motor control. probe emplanted, encourages surrounding neurons to grow. imagines moving hand, eventually understands hand->mouse->cursor & only needs to think about cursor. problem is we need to extract vectors, not just single values |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| learn through computer relationship bt vector codes associated w/ certain activity. watch waves & decide whether to swing bar. eventually net adapts-rat only had to think about pressing bar to produce waves, get water |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| direct electrical stimulation of auditory nerve. required understanding of vector codes used in inner ear |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| wire axons to computer, do associative experiments w/ many stimuli->upgradable hippocampus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| microelectrode in wrist can control electronic devices |
|
|
Term
| two teams independently develop electronic computer |
|
Definition
| turing, england, 1943, for code-breaking; eckert & mauchly, upenn, 1943-4, to guide navy missles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| german encoding that the polish broke in the 30s. turing invents machine that breaks it rapidly. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| turings gen. all purpose computing device, built just as war ending. all colossus info became constantly classified |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| warned of german/mexican alliance. germans were using very old encoding that eng solved easily |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| stores 20 #, performs 5000 additions/second. made commercially available 1951 (aot england) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| computing capabilities double every 18 months. exponential growth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| store a set of symbols, perform simple operations on them, accept an arbitrary sequence of instructions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| engineering decision. only requires 2 symbols, easy to make devices that are bistable |
|
|
Term
| 64 bits available means... |
|
Definition
| 2^64 (16 quintillion) is the first # too big to represent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 1+1=0, carry the 1. 1+0=1. 0+0=0. |
|
|
Term
| binary digits; eight of them |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| set of operations hardware can perform |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| telegraphy- uses 5-bit encoding of alphabet. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| creating resilient systems (cold war) star |
|
|
Term
| why internet so successful |
|
Definition
| decentralized means no control. the more ppl connect, the more valuable to be connected. anyone can add nodes. packet-switching |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| used for transmission of tv. geostationary (rotate same speed as earth) |
|
|
Term
| diff bt AI & cognitive science |
|
Definition
| AI-build apparently intelligent machines. cog sci- understand human intelligence by building programs |
|
|
Term
| turing test (imitation game) |
|
Definition
| room 1- human. room 2- computer. judge outside, determining who is responding to his messages |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| conference at dartmouth 1951. try to make computers solve our hardest problems- checkers/chess/go, automatic language translation |
|
|
Term
| samuel's checkers program |
|
Definition
| "gold stars" the positions occurring in winning games. you can set up 2 to play against each other. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| simple syntax conversion to simulate conversation. ppl love eliza too much, made creator turn back on AI as waste of time |
|
|
Term
| short term solution to common sense problem |
|
Definition
| restrict domain of discourse- SHRDLU, TRIPS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| brains, fundamentally biological, cause minds. symbol manipulation does not -> understanding. |
|
|
Term
| creativity as recombination |
|
Definition
| david cope. Effective recombination requires extensive musical analysis and very careful recombination to be effective |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| comp realizes, just flip triangle over to prove congruence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| adjustment of synaptic "weights" in true neural networks (infant development). production of additional synapses, change of synaptic strength |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| no loops; connections in network that loop back- emergent effects: short term memory, interpretation ambiguous senses, limit cycles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| frontal lobe: higher level though functions, memory. parietal lobe: integrating sensory info, obj manipulation. temporal lobe: hearing, high level visual processes, declarative memory. occipital lobe: visual processing |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
evolutionary, preconscious. evidence of the kinds of
representations used in the hidden layers of our visual cortex |
|
|
Term
| distributed representation |
|
Definition
| meaning derived from connections bt networks. vector for face space more detailed when features added |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| factual, depends on hippocampus |
|
|
Term
| working memory; procedural memory |
|
Definition
| stores small amnt #s, letters, function of cycling activity in brain, non-permanent change; skills, learned movt |
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|
