1. sorcery

2. breach of taboo

3. intrusion of disease object

4. intrusion of disease-causing spirit

5. loss of soul

1. almost all male ngangas are 1st sons

2. fathers expect 1st sons to become ngangas

3. apprenticeship continues from boyhood until the son himself is a nganga, at which time he trains his own son

4. every nganga expresses firm belief in the powers of his teacher and himself

5. every nganga interviewed maintained strongly that other ngangas who were either envious or have a destructive spirit can destroy or weaken the power of a healer, causing him to fail

6. origin and locus of ngangas' power is believed to be in their eyes

signify end of apprenticeship

eyes will be vaccinated many times during career, rejuveninating the power of the eyes to correctly diagnose illness and ensure proper therapy

notion of god does not imply divine intervention or retribution but simply that the cause is an affliction in the order of things unrelation to human interventions

unknown maladies

1. patient is assured that his family cares for him by the tremendous effort being made

2. the prolonged and intense contact makes it inevitable that conflicts are revealed, and if things are handled skillfully, resolved

3. a time of moratorium and turning point are established

O'Laoire - 496 volunteers, 1/2 in prayed-for group, 1/2 in control; assessed anxiety, self-esteem, mood, and depression

no difference between groups

Harris et al. - 1019 coronary patients, 990 randomized for study; no significant difference in outcomes

heavily criticized study

belief in witchcraft is universal

all the qualities usually attributed to a poor neighbor are usually assigned to witches

outlet for hostility because frustrated individuals used witches rather than neighbors or relatives as scapegoats

anxiety and neglect could be accomodated through commonly held witchcraft belief

ceremonies reinforced peoples' importance to kinsmen and the group in public

women and others having lesser status are possessed by malevolent spirits

possession of this type is often considered an illness and damages the social fabric of the group

1. witches represent peoples' greatest fears about themselves and society

2. they represent a reversal of all that is considered normal behavior in a particular society

1. witch-like behavior is a reversal of normal and socially accepted behavior --> if patriarchial authority is divinely ordained, then any attempt by women to subvert or assume that authority can be seen as an illicit reversal and hence a witch-like behavior

2. god forbade women to administer the sacraments and the devil gave them the authority to do so

3. women considered witches/evil because they suck the life-force out of men via their sperm

nature - culture

women - men

darkness - light

left - right

disorder - order

death - life

items on the left considered to be inferior to those on the right; also considered to be elements associated with witches

1. societies with total mobility and little attachment to property and with little development of hierarchy and authority --> no fears about witchcraft

2. where there is considerable mobility but some attachment to property - often expressed by the presence of unilateral descent - belief that witchcraft exists --> always located in some other group and can be avoided by a move

3. sedentary peoples of the non-industrial world --> always find beliefs in witchcraft

1. as an explanation for unfortunate events

2. as a means for social control

3. as a means of managing/channeling conflict

1.unfortunate event - dissolution of Puritan ideals/community

2. social control - ideals are not mainstream to Puritan community

3. channeling conflict - conflict between village and town

1. explains unfortunate events - scapegoating

2. anthropomorphize processes

3. witch serves as a tool for banding together, identifying a common enemy

4. is an ideological distraction from political and economic processes that may be more fundamental in explaining the unfortunate events

5. cultural icon of human inversion reinforcing cultural norms

6. accusations frequently reflect structural conflicts

every culture/system has a medical component; why people become sick and how to make them better

usually some religious elements to the medical element

1. violation of strong cultural taboos

2. spirit possession

3. premature soul loss

4. witchcraft/sorcery

5. evil eye

1. diagnostic - currendaro established woman had espanto, "weakness in blood," "tell me"

2. preparatory - specific tasts must be done over the next several days before cure

3. cure/ceremony - 25 people present, currendaro appealed to saints for help, asked people to make promises to make her better --> placebo effect, make her feel better