Term
| Struggling readers are generally (more or less) motivated to read than proficient readers |
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Definition
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Term
| Motivation (declines or increases) as grade levels increase |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| Commercial literacy program (Pearson, McGraw-Hill, etc.) |
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Term
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Definition
| Books labeled by different abilities for readers |
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Term
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Definition
| two or three consonants without a vowel between them; each one is pronounced (bl, str, cl) |
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Term
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Definition
| All the letters except the vowels |
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Term
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Definition
| A vowel sound that changes from one sound to another as it is uttered (oy, ou) |
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Term
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Definition
| A word with an unexpected pronunciation given its spelling |
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Term
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Definition
| The sound a vowel stands for when it "says its own name" |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest meaning unit in a word (rap has one, rapper has two) |
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Term
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Definition
| The initial letter or letters in a word up to the vowel |
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Term
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Definition
| The smallest sound in a word that when changed, changes the meaning of the word |
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Term
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Definition
| The part of a word from the vowel to the end that rhymes with other words |
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Term
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Definition
| One of the two most common sounds represented by a vowel |
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Term
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Definition
| A part added to the end of a word |
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Term
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Definition
| The numbers of beats or claps in a word |
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Term
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Definition
| Sounds made with an open mouth and free air flow. Most common sounds for these letters are called "long" and "short" |
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Term
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Definition
| Captain Underpants, Smile series, Farout Fairy Tales, Adventures in Cartooning, Backpack Stories, Toon Book, Lunch Lady series, Babymouse series, Diary of a Wimpy Kid, Dog Man, El Deafo |
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Term
| T/F - Teachers cannot impact students' motivation to read. |
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Definition
| False. Teachers are critical to student motivation. |
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Term
| T/F - Authentic reading experiences are motivating. |
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Definition
| True - Students who read authentic texts are more motivated |
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Term
| T/F - Motivation is idiosyncratic |
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Definition
| True - Motivation is idiosyncratic because although there are general trends, everybody is different. |
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Term
| T/F - All students lack the motivation to read complex text |
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Definition
| False - Challenging material can be motivating if it is relevant and has a clear purpose |
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Term
| T/F - Girls like to read fiction; boys like to read nonfiction |
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Definition
| Myth - Recent research suggest that both boys and girls appear motivated to read. |
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Term
| T/F - Motivation is an important scaffold when text becomes challenging. |
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Definition
| True - Students need to be motivated to get through difficult text or else they won't try. |
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Term
| T/F - Struggling readers are generally less motivated to read than proficient readers. |
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Definition
| True - readers become frustrated and do not want to read when they feel they cannot do it. |
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Term
| T/F - Motivation declines as grade levels increase |
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Definition
| True - As students get older, they typically do not stay motivated unless they have an engaging teacher. |
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Term
| T/F - Tasks within the zone of proximal development are motivating |
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Definition
| True - If a task is appropriately challenging, students will be more motivated. |
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Term
| T/F - Boys are less motivated than boys. |
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Definition
| It depends - Boys often become less motivated because teachers read "feminine" books. this motivation decrease occurs as early as 2nd grade. |
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Term
| T/F - Extrinsic rewards always lead to intrinsic motivation |
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Definition
| False - extrinsic rewards occasionally lead to intrinsic motivation |
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Term
| T/F - Teacher read-alouds increase motivation |
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Definition
| It depends on the student whether read-alouds increase motivation |
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Term
| T/F - Providing choice nurtures intrinsic reading motivation |
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Definition
| True. Students with choice often have more intrinsic motivation. |
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Term
| T/F - Teachers are critical to nurturing and maintaining reading motivation |
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Definition
| True - Readers would not be motivated without teachers |
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Term
| T/F - Public displays of reading achievement undermine intrinsic motivation |
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Definition
| True - Public displays of reading achievement can be infuriating and discouraging for students. |
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Term
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Definition
| How Sweet it is , The Pumpkin Book, The Secret Subway, Weird Pennsylvania, The Unexplained Monsters, Finding Winnie |
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Term
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Definition
| Narrative and non-narrative |
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Term
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Definition
| Narrative nonfiction and biographical |
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Term
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Definition
| Expository, procedural, persuasive |
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Term
| How do Silvers & Shorey define literacy? What page #? |
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Definition
| Silver & Shorey define literacy as all the ways that children interact with the world. This can be through multi-literacy as well as how children ask questions about how they connect with other people, use collaborative thinking to learn, and how they make a difference. |
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Term
| How does Silvers & Shorey’s definition of literacy reveal an expanded and complex view? |
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Definition
| Silver and Shoreys definition of literacy reveals an expanded and complex view because it does not focus solely on being to read and write print. Their definition o literacy includes using students social abilities, background knowledge, collaboration, and a critical perspective (p.2) |
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Term
| What are examples of critical questions that can be asked with children’s literature? |
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Definition
| Some examples of critical questions that can be asked with children's literature would be asking whose voices are heard in the story, what the author wants the reader to think or understand, what the alternative is to the author/illustrator's message, and how the student will change their views in relation to other people due to a critical reading of the text (p. 15) |
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Term
| How does Mary support critical literacy practices? |
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Definition
| Mary supports critical literacy practices through her critical questions asked while she was discussing the issue of Grandma Ruth. Mary allowed the students to discuss the article, but she consistently interjected critical questions such as, "I'm wondering why it is on the front page of the paper" (p.21) and p. 18 |
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Term
| How does Mary support authentic literacy experiences? |
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Definition
| Marry supports authentic literacy experiences by following a model that ensures her topics are engaging and important to the kids. She blends student and teacher interests, critical/current events, and required content (p.39). She uses articles form the newspaper and has students write letters to real people to actually invoke change. Letters had a real purpose and authentic audience |
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Term
| How does Mary’s classroom function as a critical community of practice? |
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Definition
| Mary's classroom functions as a critical community of practice by integrating problem-solving and critical thinking into the emotional aspect of their classroom. At the beginning of the school year, Mary asked the students to complete a family history survey to build awareness of the uniqueness of each student in the class. She then linked the lesson to Hurricane Katrina which the children were naturally curious about. She used a KWL chart to have the students think critically and to connect current events to multicultural aspects (p.35-36) |
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Term
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Definition
| Ability to read quickly and accurately with an expressive voice. Based on accuracy and rate |
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Term
| 7 Steps to Teaching Reading |
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Definition
1. Language
2. Concepts about Print
3. Alphabetic Knowledge
4. Phonics and Word Knowledge
5. Vocabulary
6. Fluency
7. Word Knowledge |
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Term
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Definition
Receptive (What students hear)
Speak to students, tell them stories, etc.
Expressive (What students say)
Picture card games, story making games |
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Term
| Why students struggle with expressive language |
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Definition
| They do not come from a language rich home environment or they are ELLs. |
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Term
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Definition
| Understanding how to read a book, how pictures support a book, directional words (reading from left to right), and knowing what a letter is versus a word/sentence. |
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Term
| How to support development of concepts about print |
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Definition
| Talk about who the author/illustrator are, use humor (reading book upside down or backwards), model reading the book (including looking at pictures), ask students to predict what will happen based off of the cover |
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Term
| How to support development of alphabetic knowledge |
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Definition
| Start with easy consonants such as "m", label the room, teach capital letters first, Letter People, each letter takes about a week to introduce, mystery box |
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Term
| Phonics and Word Knowledge |
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Definition
| Print-to-speech (decoding) and speech-to-print (encoding). Recognizing and being able to manipulate sounds of a word and understanding how words are created |
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Term
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Definition
| PreK-Kindergarten: glance and guess what words say, words as a whole |
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Term
| Activities to support development in the logographic phase |
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Definition
| Label the room, morning messages |
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Term
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Definition
| Early 1st grade: Students read words letter by letter. |
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Term
| Activities to support development in the alphabetic phase |
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Definition
| Word Stretching, magnetic letters, sight words, repeated reading |
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Term
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Definition
| First and early second grade: Chunking (putting letters together to read a word) |
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Term
| Activities to support development in the orthographic phase |
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Definition
| Flip cards, word wheels, word sorts/hunts |
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Term
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Definition
| 2nd or 3rd grade: Meaningful word parts (Knowledge of suffixes and prefixes) |
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Term
| Activities to support development in the morphological phase |
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Definition
| Journaling and structural analysis |
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Term
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Definition
| 4th grade and up: Word histories and word families - Latin and Greek root words |
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Term
| Activities to support development in the derivational phase |
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Definition
| Word reports on where words come from |
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Term
| Phases of Phonics and Word Knowledge |
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Definition
1. Logographic (PreK-K)
2. Alphabetic Phase (Early 1st)
3. Orthographic Phase (1st-Early 2nd)
4. Morphological Phase (2nd or 3rd grade and up)
5. Derivational Phase (4th grade and up) |
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Term
| Activities to support development in Phonics and Word Knowledge |
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Definition
Monster test
Word study
Word families
Word walls
Reader's Theater
Outlaw words |
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Term
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Definition
Tier 1 - Everyday words
Tier 2 - Academic words
Tier 3 - Domain specific words |
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Term
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Definition
Rate, pacing, and expression
How to stop/pause due to punctuation
Ability to read in phrases rather than word by word
Reads continuously without stopping to sound out words |
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Term
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Definition
Recognize main ideas, make inferences, summarize
The ability to accurately understand written material requires children to decode what they read, make connections to prior knowledge, and think deeply about what they have read
An active process of doing something with what we read
Begins by direct instruction through read aloud and monitoring |
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Term
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Definition
The ability to recognize and produce many letters of the alphabet
Understanding rules that relate to the sounds that letters make
Recognizing letters and what sound each one makes makes - Start with letters with 1 sound first, don't introduce similar-sounding words together |
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Term
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Definition
| A brief activity at the beginning of a lesson to engage the learners and introduce the topic |
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Term
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Definition
| The ability to apply knowledge of letter-sound relationships to correctly pronounce words - these skills allow children to recognize familiar words quickly and to figure out words they haven't seen before. |
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Term
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Definition
| Adding a silent "e" turns a short vowel into a long vowel |
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Term
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Definition
| A vowel changes its sound when an "r" is placed after it |
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Term
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Definition
| a single sound represented by two letters |
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Term
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Definition
Grouping of words in a sentence into short meaningful phrases
Prevents word-by-word reading |
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Term
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Definition
| An observed response that does not match what the listener expects to hear |
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Term
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Definition
| An assessment that helps a teacher recognize the cueing strategies (strategies a reader uses to make sense of a text) of a reader. Focuses on what a student is doing right to build on existing reading strategies |
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Term
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Definition
A sound made by combining two vowel sounds that moves (gliding vowel)
i.e. afraid, buy |
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Term
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Definition
| The period of time between when a child notices print to when they can read |
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Term
| Critical Literacy / Critical Community of Practice |
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Definition
| Encourages readers to actively analyze text and offer strategies for what proponents describe as uncovering underlying messages |
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Term
| Principles of motivation that support literacy |
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Definition
1. Classroom Library
2. Sustained Reading
3. Choice
4. Social Interactions
5. Relevancy |
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Term
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Definition
Many genres including cereal boxes/ magazines / books
A balance of informative and narrative
Don't put all books out at once
Teach reading skills |
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Term
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Definition
Giving students time to read throughout the day (more than 5 minutes)
D.E.A.R.
More than just 5 minutes per day |
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Term
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Definition
Provide as much as possible when it comes to reading
Children tend to read more if they enjoy what they are reading and take ownership and responsibility for their literacy learning |
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Term
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Definition
Students should talk about books by writing and discussing with their peers
Sharing books with others |
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Term
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Definition
| Maximize opportunities to engage in literacy tasks that are relevant to students lives |
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Term
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Definition
| Text-dependent questions are those that can only be answered by referring back to the text being read |
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Term
| Expanded view of literacy |
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Definition
Literacy is more than reading and writing. Multiliteracies include all of the ways we can communicate in the 21st century.
Social participation within communities of practice lies at the heart of a multiliteracies classroom. |
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Term
| Imagery for Reading Comprehension |
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Definition
| Being able to create your own setting and characters as you read a book without images |
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Term
| Children's Literature Awards |
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Definition
John Newbery Medal
Randolph Caldecott Medal
Coretta Scott King |
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Term
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Definition
| Most distinguished contribution to American Literature for children |
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Term
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Definition
| Most distinguished American Picture book for children |
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Term
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Definition
| Recognizes outstanding African American authors and illustrators for books about the African-American experience written for a youth audience |
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Term
| Types of illustrations in children's literature |
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Definition
Woodcuts/ block printing
Linoleum block printing
vinyl engraving
potato printing
Scratchboard
Etching
Pulp Painting
Photography
Collage
Paper cutting
Quilts
Embroidery
Computer generated graphics |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of illustration created in 6th century China - made from a piece of wood cut along the grain |
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Term
| Linoleum Block Printing / Linocutting |
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Definition
| A type of illustration that allows illustrators more freedom than wood cutting. -works with broad and chunky pieces of this material |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of illustration where illustrator cuts into a type of material to create the images. This type is harder and denser than linoleum yet softer than wood |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of illustration where a potato is cut in half or into different shapes. It is then painted with acrylic and printed onto cotton muslin |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of illustration where the material is a special manufactured type of cardboard coated with white clay. A black ink is applied and then scratched away to create an image |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of illustration where a polished copper plate coated with a thin layer of wax and scratched away with a stylus. Plate is then soaked in acid, filled with ink, and rolled onto heavy paper. Final product is painted |
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Term
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Definition
| A type of illustration where paper is homemade then beaten and colored. It is then placed on top of regular paper to create images |
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Term
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Definition
A type of illustration where the illustrator takes pictures and alters the photographs somehow.
Mo Willems with Knuffle Bunny
Carl Warner with food landscapes |
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Term
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Definition
A type of illustration where there are cut outs of fragments of materials attached to a solid background to create a composite picture.
Eric Carle
Lauren Child |
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Term
| Eric Carle style of illustrating |
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Definition
| A collage type where painted tissue paper is cut into shapes |
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Term
|
Definition
| A collage type that uses 3D objects (ISpy) |
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Term
|
Definition
| A collage type that photographs 3D materials in front of different backgrounds |
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Term
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Definition
| A collage type by Joan Steiner - Creates scenes out of everyday objects |
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Term
| Tactile/Sculptural Illustrations |
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Definition
| A collage type that uses layers of foam board - Don Carter |
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Term
|
Definition
| A collage type using natural and artificial materials |
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Term
|
Definition
| An illustration type that consists of two dimensional images that are strategically cut and arranged - Rachel Isadora |
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Term
|
Definition
| An illustration type where needlework is used to create illustrations - Anna Grossnicke Hines |
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Term
|
Definition
| An illustration type that combines needlework with different materials - Belinda Downes |
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Term
| Computer generated graphics |
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Definition
| An illustration type that uses the computer to create images - Jan Thomas |
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Term
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Definition
Non-fiction
Historical Fiction
Modern/Contemporary Realistic Fiction
Fantasy
Informational Text
Science Fiction |
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Term
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Definition
| Factual information that informs a reader. 5 W's. |
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Term
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Definition
| A story based on an earlier era and time period |
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Term
| Contemporary Realistic Fiction |
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Definition
| Real people with real problems solved in a realistic manner |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| A type of nonfiction that conveys information about the natural or social world - does not read like a story |
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Term
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Definition
Usually set in the near or distant future in the real world or a parallel universe
Unreal things happen because of science instead of magic |
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Term
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Definition
| Gives information about a book and excites people to read the book |
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Term
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Definition
Giving clues to what might happen to the book
Not giving away the ending
Asking questions about what might happen to characters in a book
"You'll have to read the book to find out"
Experiences related to the book |
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Term
| Activities to support Vocabulary development |
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Definition
Introduce a word before, during, and after it appears in a text
Before - Create an experience or memory (Experiential, memory trigger, sensory, interview, homework)
During - recollect the experience (Greet the new word like an old friend)
After - Review and assessment (Draw a picture, worksheet, use in context, report) |
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Term
| Games to support expressive language |
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Definition
| Crazy 8s, I Spy, Clever Catch Balls, Story Cubes, Spot it! |
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Term
| Activities to support comprehension skills |
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Definition
| Readers theater, coming up with a new ending, questioning, logical predicting, retelling, making inferences, providing evidence from the text, summarizing the plot, character relationships, cause and effect, explaining details, teaching students how to question, monitoring their own reading (metacognition), activating background knowledge |
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Term
| Features of literature circles |
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Definition
Children choose their own reading materials
Groups are formed based on book choice
Groups meet on a predictable schedule
Students use written notes to guide discussion
Group meetings are open
Teacher serves as a facilitator, observer, and reader
Students are given roles or jobs for each group meeting
Evaluation is by teacher observation and student self-evaluation |
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Term
| Roles of a literature circle |
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Definition
Discussion facilitator
Locator
Illustrator
Connector
Summarizer
Vocabulary Enricher
Travel Tracer
Investigator
Figurative Language Finder |
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Term
|
Definition
| Develops a list of questions for a literature circle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Locates a few significant passages of text for a literature circle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Draws, sketches, or paints a picture or scene appropriate to the section of the novel for a literature circle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Locates significant passages in the novel and connects these passages to real life for a literature circle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Prepares a brief summary of the reading assigned for a literature circle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Records and defines important words for a literature circle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Records major shifts in action or location for a literature circle |
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Term
| T/F - Children who experienced difficulty in learning to read by the end of third grade are likely to fall behind academically |
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Definition
| True - third graders with difficulty learning to read will most likely fall behind academically |
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Term
| A teacher who makes decisions on her intuition is influenced by her |
|
Definition
| experiences as a learner when she was in elementary school. |
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Term
| Developmentally appropriate practice is characterized by: |
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Definition
| Children’s play provides a context for learning and to practice what has been learned |
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Term
| The interaction pattern that is basic to communication is |
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Definition
| Shared reference and eye contact |
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Term
| Communication loops involve |
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Definition
| A turn-taking between two people who alternate listening and speaking |
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Term
|
Definition
| Describes what is occurring, connecting actions with language |
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Term
| Child-directed speech is characterized by |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| The features of child-directed speech |
|
Definition
| facilitate children’s comprehension of language |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| supports a child’s verbal and non-verbal participation |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| involves an adult's awareness that the task needs to be simplified to encourage a child's comprehension and participation |
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Term
| The movement to develop standards for achievement at each grade level was initially influenced by |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| The National Reading Panel |
|
Definition
| reviewed research on reading and specific instructional approaches |
|
|
Term
| The National Reading Panel's report focused on |
|
Definition
| fluency and comprehension |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| emphasized the importance of children learning to read by the end of 3rd grade |
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Term
| The joint position statement on lit development by IRA and NAEYC emphazizes |
|
Definition
| children's development of conventional reading by the end of third grade |
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Term
| • A written set of specific instructional plans for teaching children at a particular level of development is referred to as |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Child reacts to loud sounds |
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Term
|
Definition
| Most children understand "no-no" and babbles |
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Term
|
Definition
| Attends to a book for about 2 minutes, answers questions nonverbally |
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Term
|
Definition
| Child enjoys being read to, says 8-10 words |
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Term
|
Definition
| Child speaks in 2-3 word phases |
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Term
|
Definition
| Groups food as objects such as food, clothes, etc. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Understands spatial concepts, says about 200 words |
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Term
|
Definition
| Understands more than 2000 words |
|
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Term
| The subskill/readiness approach was prevalent during |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| The bottom-up process of reading is associated with |
|
Definition
| the Behaviorist perspective |
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Term
| The Behaviorist perspective assumes that children learn to read by |
|
Definition
| receiving direct instruction in a sequence of subskills, such as letter-sound relationships |
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Term
| In a classroom that follows a Reading Readiness/Subskills approach, you would expect to see |
|
Definition
| individual workbooks that focus on recognizing the alphabet and letter-sound relationships |
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Term
| The Naturalist perspective emphasizes |
|
Definition
| the construction of meaning during the reading process |
|
|
Term
| The top-down process is associated with |
|
Definition
| the Naturalist perspective |
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Term
| In the Naturalist perspective, children are encouraged to communicate through |
|
Definition
| Communicate through drawing, scribbling, letter-like units, and invented spelling |
|
|
Term
| The Naturalist perspective is associated with the |
|
Definition
| whole language instructional approach |
|
|
Term
| In a classroom that follows a Balanced approach, you would expect to see |
|
Definition
| reading and writing for authentic purposes and isolated skill practice |
|
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Term
| The zone of proximal development refers to |
|
Definition
| the area of potential growth between what they can do independently and with adult mediation |
|
|
Term
| The Behaviorist perspective is associated with the work of this learning theorist: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Reinforcement that depends upon a child’s prior response is |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| refers to the idea that at a particular point each child is ready to learn to read, having acquired all of the necessary subskills |
|
|
Term
| The Naturalist perspective |
|
Definition
| believes that all children have a natural capacity to develop literacy |
|
|
Term
| Two key theorists of the Naturalist perspective are |
|
Definition
| Ken Goodman and Frank Smith |
|
|
Term
| Ken Goodman considers reading to be a |
|
Definition
| psycholinguistic guessing game |
|
|
Term
| In the Transactional perspective, reading is defined as a transaction between the |
|
Definition
| reader/writer, text, and context |
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Term
|
Definition
| two/three consonants without a vowel between them; each one is pronounced (str, cl, st) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Two letters that represent a single sound (sh, ch, th, ea, oa) |
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Term
|
Definition
| A vowel sound that changes from one sound to another (oy in toy, ou in found) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Smallest meaning unit in a word (rap has 1, rapper has 2) |
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Term
|
Definition
| The initial letter or letters in a word up to the vowel (r in rap, str in strap) |
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Term
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Definition
| smallest sound in a word that when changed, changes the meaning of the word (rap contains 3 phonemes) |
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Definition
| A part added to the beginning of a base or root to change its meaning (un-, re-, anti-) |
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| the part of a word from the vowel to the end that rhymes with other words (at in cat, ind in grind) |
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| A part added to the end of a word (-ed, -ing, -tion, -ly) |
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| the number of beats or claps in a word |
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| IRA Standards for Reading Professionals |
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Definition
| Foundational Knowledge, Curriculum and Instruction, Assessment and Evaluation, Diversity, Literate environment, Professional learning and leadership |
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| Science Fiction & Fantasy books |
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Definition
The Adventures of Beekle
Magic Tree House Series |
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Who Was..
Fly Guy Presents: The White House |
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| Comics & Graphic Novel Genre books |
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Definition
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| Historical Fiction genre books |
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Definition
Henry's Freedom Box
One Crazy Night |
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| Multicultural literature genre books |
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Definition
| Don't throw it to Mo!, Last Stop on Market Street, The Sandwich Stop |
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| Contemporary Realistic Fiction |
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Definition
| Wonder, Raymie Nightingale, The Smallest Girl in the Smallest Grade |
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| Art, games, movement, music, playacting, props |
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| Emotions are inseparable from thinking |
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| Theoretical perspectives of literacy development |
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Definition
Behaviorist
Naturalist
Balanced
Transactional |
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Definition
Children first learn individual skills in a specific sequence
Positive reinforcement shapes a child's behavior
Reading/ Subskills/ Readiness |
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Children learn to read/write through everyday literacy experiences
Whole language
Child-centered |
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| Children learn literacy through a combination of skill and holistic, everyday experiences (Balance between subskills/readiness and whole language, Direct Instruction and individual discovery language), Balanced |
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| Children learn literacy through transactions involving knowledge of language, texts encountered, and socio-cultural contexts, comprehensive literacy interaction |
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| Transactional classroom environment |
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Definition
| Writing daily journals, current event articles and newspapers, areas where kids rely on literacy (daily calendar and jobs, interactive bulletin boards, read-alouds, show & tells, personal stories) |
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| Behaviorist classroom environment |
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Definition
| Teacher models how to write letters and students are encouraged to participate individually, independent work and rewards |
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| Naturalist classroom environment |
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Definition
| Writing to read and communicate, reading story as a whole group, small group activities, tasks such as writing and performing a play |
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Definition
| Nonvisual information (prior knowledge), construction of meaning, visual info leads to reading comprehension, interactive with lots of group sharing activities, Montessori approach (independent with direct instruction) |
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Definition
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| differences in oral dialect |
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| Regional dialect/ social dialect |
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Definition
| Language that changes based on where someone lives |
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| Phonetic language knowledge |
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Definition
| Perception and production of sounds of language (phonological and phonemic awareness, decoding and encoding), awareness of rhythm, tempo, intonation, and volume of speech |
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| Semantic language knowledge |
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Definition
| Knowledge of word meanings through direct and vicarious experiences (vocabulary) |
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| Syntactic language knowledge |
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Definition
| Knowledge of word order (grammar) |
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| Morphemic language knowledge |
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Definition
| Knowledge of word structures and variations (plurality, verb tense, possession) |
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Definition
| Knowledge of how to use language in different settings (Give directions, cultural forms of politeness, conversational turn-taking) |
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Definition
| Conscious awareness of features of language, structure, how it can be manipulated |
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