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| study of how words are formed into phrases, and phrases into sentences. For words are not randomly combined. |
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| govern how words may be combined into larger units. Just like morphology & phonology in regards to sound combinations. |
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| every clause is organized around a predicate; syntactic subject in English. |
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| Predicates that only have a subject are called |
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| Intransitive predicates like giggle have one argument: |
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| there must be a giggler. Nina is the giggler. |
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| Intransitive predicates with 1 subject are described as |
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| 1. [SUBJ Nina] giggled.[SUBJ The baby] cried. [SUBJ A large dog that lives down the street] howled. |
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| Some predicates have no arguments, but |
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| They still require a subject |
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| no semantic meaning. BUT, English needs a subject of SOME sort. So we use 'it' when there is nothing else. |
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| Many languages do not require a |
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| verbs that describe events with 2 NP participants. |
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| verbs that have 2 arguments Ie., Alec petted the puppy |
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| second argument is a structural syntactic position that follows the verb in English. |
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| Trivalent/Ditransitive verbs |
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| Trivanent/Ditransitive Generally describe an event of |
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| precedes direct object Ie., [SUBJ Mimi] lent [IO Johnny] [OBJ her favourite pen] 2. [SUBJ Johnny] sent [IO Santa] [OBJ a letter] |
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| Some ditransitive verbs have a |
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| subject, object, and oblique object. |
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| NPs that are introduces by prepositions like in, for, or to. Generally follows the object. |
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| Syntax generalizations in intransitive clauses |
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| [S_Nina] burped & S-V word order. |
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| Syntax generalizations In transitive clauses: |
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| [S_Nina] belched [O_ the national anthem] & Subject-Verb-Object word order |
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| Syntax generalizations In distransitive clauses |
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| [S_Nina] blew [IO_me] [O_a kiss] & Subject-Verb-Indirect Object-Object word order |
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| Syntax generalizations In ditransitive clauses with an oblique (X) |
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| Nina placed her lambie in the toiled & Subject-Verb-Object-Oblique word order |
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| Intransitive – S-V, Transitive – S-V-O, Ditranstitive – S-V-IO-O, Ditransitive – S-V-O-X |
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| Generally refer to the transitive word order as the |
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| order of ANY given language. Thus, English is an SVO language. |
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| Another way to identify the subject, object, or direct object. Done with a case marker |
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| morpheme added to a noun-phrase to indicate its subject, object, etc. |
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| Very few remnants left over; seen only in pronouns. Suppletive forms of I & Me |
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| Some languages have more regular case marking, where word order can be more free. This is because case marking will tell us what the subject or object is, even if word order is messed. |
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| Nominative – ga marks subjects, Accusative – o marks subjects, Dative – ni marks indirect objects |
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| One case marking may be null (Ø).Russian uses this – nominative case is marked by finding the noun phrase that has no pronounced case ending. |
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| used when subjects are always marked with same case, regardless of whether they are subjects of transitive or intransitive verbs. |
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| Some languages have a split ergative system: |
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| some subjects follow a nominative/accusative patters, and some a ergative and absolutive pattern like Tongan |
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| the same case marker, regardless of transivity |
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| the same case marker for intransitive subjects and objects. Transitive subjects have a special case. |
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| In both systems case allows the possibility for |
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| freer word order of subjects, objects, etc. |
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| Most common type of agreement anywhere is subject agreement. |
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| English has a very limited form of |
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| subject agreement. It is only for 3rd person singular objects, and present (habitual) tense verbs. |
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| Many languages have a complete agreement paradigm; |
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| all subject forms, and for all tenses, triggers an agreement marker on the verb. |
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| Complete agreement paradigm languages |
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| have this sort of agreement paradigm, it is often possible to leave the subject unexpressed. Information can be recovered about the subject from the verb agreement, and this enables speakers to leave out a subject! |
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| Some languages have agreement for GENDER of subject. Ie, Russian. |
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| In many languages, verbs may agree with both |
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| subject and object in transitive sentences. For example, in Spokan Salish, a 3rd person subject is marked with a –es suffix and singular with a kwu- prefix |
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| We can alter our syntax to reflect changes in voice, such as the active or passive forms. |
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| Passive clauses are used to syntactically |
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| “suppress the agent of an event”, so they are typically used by politicians to avoid responsibility. |
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| can be express, but is often left out. I made poor decisions [active] vs. Poor decisions were made [passive] |
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| Passives (like all English sentences) require a |
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| subject. But the passive operation make for a different NP. |
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| Question formatio alternation |
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| Grammatical relations are preserved, but word order is altered. This is because wh-words typically appear at the left edge of the clause. Ie., Bill devoured an enormous turkey VS. What did Bill devour? |
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| Wh-question formation is seen as a |
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| syntactic operation that involves syntactic movement. |
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| Nouns (dog) Verbs (eat) Adjectives (tall) Adverbs (slowly) |
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| Prepositions (in, to, under) Articles (a, an, the), Auxiliaries (will, should, must), Conjunctions (and, or, but) |
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| Identifying word-classes: syntactic criteria |
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| Nouns can be introduced by a determiners (articles) Determiners = a, an, the, this, that, these, those, every. These classify nouns or identify them as unknown. Nouns can be inflected for the plural |
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| Identifying nouns: syncretic theory |
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| Contexts of identification for nouns. Det___, Adjective ___, ___ -plural. Type of substitution test; anything that can occur on its own after the determiner must be a noun. |
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| Identifying verbs: syncretic criteria |
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| Verbs can be introduced by auxiliaries, Verbs can be modified by adverbs, Verbs can be inflected for tense (morphological test) |
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| will, would, can, could, may might. Used with verbs to classify actions and states. |
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| Contexts of identification for verbs |
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| Auxiliary ___ - I WILL walk, ___ Adverb – I walk SLOWLY, Adverb___ - I USUALLY walk, ___-tense – I walk-ED |
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| Contexts of identification for adjectives: |
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| Determiner ___ noun – THE tall TREE, Degree word___ - REALLY tall, Subject + be + ___ - THE RAT IS smart, ___ -est – tall-EST, ___ -er – tall-ER |
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| Identifying word classes: adverbs |
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| Occur as verb modifiers, Walked SLOWLY, left YESTERDAY |
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| Contexts of identification for aVerbs |
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| can be inflected for tense (morphological test)V___ - WALKED slowly, AUX ___ V – (will) NEVER surrender, ___ ADJ – extremely HAPPY, ___ ADV – extremely QUICKLY |
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| group of elements behaving as a unit |
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| A syntactic constituents is a |
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| A constituency test is a way to |
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| identify syntactic constituent |
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