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Definition
| a Genoese navigator, colonizer and explorer who was obsessed with getting gold and had a desire to spread Christianity throughout the world. "Discovered" the Americas. |
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| Spanish conquistador, who allied with the Totanacs, the Tlaxadans, and the Texcicans to topple the Aztec empire under Moctezoma |
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| Last emperor of the Aztecs, who actually invited the Spaniards into Tenochtitlan |
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| Conquered the Incas (though most of the Inca population was already wiped out by smallpox) |
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| The Inca ruler defeated by Pizarro in 1533 |
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| The Totonacs, Tlaxadans, and Texcocans |
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Definition
| The Indian tribes who hated the Aztecs and banned together with the Spaniards to defeat the Aztecs |
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| Indian woman who served as a translator and lover to Cortez |
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Definition
| Inca rebel leader who lead an uprising in 1536 only to have it squashed by 1572 |
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| Major silver site starting in 1545 and produced 200,000 pesos of silver a week |
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| A forced labour program of indigenous peoples in Peru |
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| Large estates made of lands formerly of the indigenous peoples |
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| A rebellion in Peru in the 1560s where newly converted indigenous peoples would be possessed by their former gods and begin to sing and dance uncontrollably. The Spaniards were quick to tak repressive actions to put it down. |
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| A forced labour system for Spanish America |
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| A Spanish priest who believed that the indigenous peoples had the ability to become perfect Christians and you couldn't exploit those who could become Christian (souls). Therefore, he proposed to import slaves to spare the souls of indigenous Christians. |
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Definition
| Property. The legal code in the Americas declared that slaves were considered chattel. |
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| Huge sugar plantations that were compiled of fields, mills, and barracks where slaves lived. |
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| One of the most famous hybrid religions that developed on Haiti |
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| A slave's permanent legal release from slavery |
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Definition
| Short term escape from a plantation that represented a break from plantation work |
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Definition
| Permanent escape from a plantation |
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| Communities of escaped slaves that generally stayed fairly small |
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| A large maroon community in Brazil that organized themselves as a state who at its height in the 1690s had over 200,000 people. It was militarily in 1695. |
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| A rebellion in 1757 led by Francois Makandal, a slave, medicine man, and faithful voodoo follower. He developed a plan to overthrow the system of slavery and to set up a black republic in Haiti. His plan was for slaves and maroons to poison the waters to scare the plantation owners. When the owners would try to flee, they would capture them and their families and kill them. However, before the plan was executed, one of Makandal's conspirators got scared and snitched on him. Makandal would be then captured twice and eventually burned at the stake. |
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| The mixing of different races through reproduction |
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| All mixed race people in Latin America |
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| "The decent people," usually wealthy white, such as merchants, church officials, bureaucrats, and military officers |
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Definition
| "The masses" or people who worked with their hands (could include impoverished whites) |
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Definition
| The "purity" of the Christian blood of Iberian people |
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Definition
| If a person was wealthy enough, the purchase this document from the king and "whiten" themselves |
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Definition
| A full-fledged nun whose family had to pay a large dowry |
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Definition
| Nuns who could only perform menial duties and usually consisted of women of lower economic status |
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Definition
| Spaniards born in Latin America |
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Definition
| A system of dramatic reform initiated under Charles III to make colonialism "work" for Spain |
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Definition
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Definition
| Creole elite elected to lead revolts in Bogota, New Granada |
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Term
| Archbishop Antonio Caballero y Gongora |
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Definition
| Archbishop who colonial officials sent to negotiate with the rebels as they sent for more soldiers. He gave into all the demands of the rebels, only to have all legislation signed by him to be declared fraudulent. |
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Definition
| Comunero leader who continued to fight after treaty with Caballero was signed. Was defeated, captured, and exectued in 1782. |
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Definition
| Claimed to be descended from the last Inca rebel, Tupac Amaru and who was a kuraka (ethnic chief). Launched a revolt in November of 1780 with the execution of a corrupt local official. |
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Term
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Definition
| The wife of Tupac Amaru II who warned him that if he did not take Cuzco, they would not win |
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Definition
| Language of the Incas that the majority of indigenous people spoke |
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Definition
| Fear that the Spaniards would not be able to control the indigenous peoples after the Tupac Amaru rebellion |
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Definition
| The original name of Haiti |
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Term
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Definition
| White plantation owners in Haiti |
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Definition
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Definition
| Leader of a rebellion in Haiti following the rejection of the request by freed persons for the equality and rights of being a citizen |
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Definition
| Place of the solemnization to launch a revolt in Haiti in a voodoo ritual |
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Definition
| A Haitian freedman who was a leader of the Haitian Revolution. Born in Saint Domingue , in a long struggle for independence Toussaint led enslaved Africans to victory over Europeans, abolished slavery, and secured native control over the colony in 1797 while nominally governor of the colony. He expelled the French commissioner Léger-Félicité Sonthonax, as well as the British armies; invaded Santo Domingo to free the slaves there; and wrote a constitution naming himself governor-for-life that established a new polity for the colony. |
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Definition
| A leading mulatto military leader during the Haitian Revolution who controlled the south of Haiti |
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Definition
| Toussaint's closet ally who lobbied Toussaint for more rights for ex-slaves and was eventually executed by Toussaint |
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Definition
| French military leader who was sent to Haiti by Napoleon in February 1802. Most of his troops died to illness and Leclerc too would die due to yellow fever |
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Definition
| LeClerc's successor in Haiti who ordered mass executions and mass massacres but would eventually be defeated in 1803 |
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Definition
| Revolutionary leader and first ruler of independent Haiti |
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Definition
| A voodoo priest whose death helped start the Haitian Revolution |
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Term
| The Provisional Junta of the Provinces of the Rio de la Plata |
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Definition
| A ruling coalition created by creoles in Argentina after Napoleon ousted the Spanish king. Claimed to rule in the name of the Spanish king and would eventually become the official Argentine government |
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Term
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Definition
| The Spanish king ousted by Napoleon |
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Term
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Definition
| A white, elite creole who helped Venezuela declare independence |
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Term
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Definition
| A white, elite creole who helped Venezuela declare independence. Didn't have a limited goal and wanted independence for all of Latin America. Would actually impose independence on Peru. |
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Term
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Definition
| Inside Mexico, bridged the anger of the peasants and the want for independence of the creoles to start the struggle for Mexican independence |
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Term
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Definition
| The declaration of war against Spain made by Father Miguel Hidalgo in September of 1810 in the belltower of a church |
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Term
| Father Jose Maria Morelos |
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Definition
| Priest who took the place of Hidalgo after his execution. Introduced a strategy of guerilla warfare |
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Term
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Definition
| A creole military leader who began fighting against the rebels in the Mexican war for independence but then switch sides following the death of Morelos and made a treaty with the rebel leaders to end the war. |
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Term
| El Plan de Iguala (The Plan of 3 Guarantees) |
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Definition
| Treaty drawn up by Iturbide that made a plan for independence, allowed for the church to keep all of its properties and powers, and for Spaniards to be left alone. Guaranteed that almost nothing would change in Mexico. |
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Term
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Definition
| Special privileges to the Church in Latin America |
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Term
| Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna |
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Definition
| Classic example of a caudillo in Mexico. Fought for Spain for most of the War of Independence only to switch sides with Iturbide. Came to power as president in 1833 and held presidency off and on 11 times between 1833 and 1855. Loses respect after Mexican-American War |
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Term
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Definition
| The liberal vice president of Santa Anna who when became president after Santa Anna resigned, had very liberal legislation passed, including the ending of fueros to, the control of education by, and taxes paid to the church. Caused conservative protest and is eventually ousted by Santa Anna |
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Definition
| War between Mexico and France in 1938 when France claimed the Mexico owed them money following the destruction of a French baker's property in Mexico. France blockaded Vera Cruz and the war ended eventually with the paying of a huge sum by Mexico |
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Term
| War of the North American Invasion |
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Definition
| In 1946, there was a dispute between the US and Mexico over where the border of Texas was. US invaded Mexican territory and Mexico ended up losing a lot of its territory |
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Term
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Definition
| The Minister of Justice in 1855 in Mexico who made the Juarez Law, which limited fueros to the church |
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Term
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Definition
| The Minister of the Treasury in 1855 in Mexico who made the Lerdo Law, which banned the Catholic Church from owning ny land that wasn't directly connected to the church |
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Term
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Definition
| A constitution created by Mexican liberals that cemented the Lerdo and Jurez laws and caused the conservatives the Catholic Church to panic |
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Term
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Definition
| A civil war in Mexico in 1857 immediately following the drafting of the constitution. It lasted until 1861 1ith victory of the liberals but caused devastation to the economy. |
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Term
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Definition
| Refused to leave Mexicco and wanted more than repayment of debts. Was convinced that the Mexican people would welcome France and a French associated monarch. Installed Archduke Ferdinand Maximillian as emperor of Mexico |
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Term
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Definition
| An Austrian archduke who Napoleon III installed as emperor of Mexico. Actually fairly liberal but disliked by both liberals and conservatives of Mexico. Was captured and killed in 1867. |
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Term
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Definition
| Mexican peasant soldiers defeat French troops |
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Term
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Definition
| The "Free Womb Law" that freed all newborns born to slaves. However a planter was obliged to take care of the child until it was 8 years old and even then the planter didn't have to free the child until it was 21. |
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Term
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Definition
| If police felt a freed man wasn't working enough, they could be forced to spend a period of time on plantations |
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Term
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Definition
| "Wheat-coloured", a new racial identifier in Argentina that could include several different races of people (Africans, indigenous peoples, and Europeans) and made Argentina "more European" |
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Term
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Definition
| Thought that whites were the "fittest" so whiter nations were "fitter" nations |
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Term
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Definition
| Societies founded by Afro-Argentines to help make their lives easier |
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Term
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Definition
| A working class dance created by Afro-Argentines |
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Term
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Definition
| Led the political strand of the Mexican Revolution. Genuinely believed that political change was enough to help Mexico. Started a revolt that successfully ousted Diaz and became president in 1911 only to be ousted soon after |
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Term
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Definition
| Plan made by Madero in Texas to start an insurrection in Mexico on November 20, 1910 when Madero crossed the border |
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Term
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Definition
| Illiterate mestizo peasant who was a part of the social justice strand of the Mexican Revolution. Wanted agrarian reform and was strongest in the south of Mexico |
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Term
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Definition
| Began an uprising against Madero in February 1913. His forces marched on Madero's presidential residency |
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Term
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Definition
| A military general who Madero initially turned but who in turn betrayed Madero and alied with Feliz Diaz. Arrested Madero and made himself president |
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Term
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Definition
| Posed opposition in the north to Madero. Was initially supported by Zapata until he decided to endorse Huerta. This choice led to the rise of Pancho Villa. |
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Term
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Definition
| Plan made by Zapata in November of 1911 that created opposition to Madero and stressed agrarian reform |
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Term
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Definition
| A social bandit who was an enormously effective political and military leader. Committed to social and economic change. |
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Term
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Definition
| Leader of the opportunist strand in the Mexican Revolution. Was an elderly, large landowner who would do everything to gain power. |
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Definition
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Definition
| Military leader who was an ally to Carranza |
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Term
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Definition
| Female camp followers who served as nurses and cooks. Also foraged among the dead to retrieve weapons and smuggled weapons to forces. |
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Term
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Definition
| Created by a terrified Carranza who made major concessions to Zapata and Villa. It gave rights and benefits to workers (8 hour days, unions, strikes, etc.), guaranteed Mexico the right to its sub-soil resources, and demanded agrarian reform |
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Term
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Definition
| Policy of nonintervention and shared interests by the US in the western hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
| American president who supported the Good Neighbour Policy |
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Term
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Definition
| President of the Dominican Republic, who order the 1937 Massacre of the Haitians |
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Term
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Definition
| Haitian president after the 1937 massacre who wanted to avoid military conflict and pretty much denied the massacre. Only after pressure did he wire FDR to act as a mediator between him and Trujillo. |
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Term
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Definition
| Created by Trujillo as an asylum for Jews during World War II but actually only a couple hundred of Jews ever came or were offered any support from Trujillo. |
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Term
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Definition
| A state policy of Dominican Republic that penetrates deep into Dominican culture. |
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Term
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Definition
| The decade of 1930s that was coloured by fraud and corruption that was ended by Juan Peron. |
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Term
| Ministry of Labour and Welfare |
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Definition
| Originally a department of labour in Argentina but bolstered by Peron |
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Term
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Definition
| Supporters of Peron who began a protest for Peron after he was arrested by the military in 1945 |
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Term
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Definition
| A new political party for workers in Argentina created by Peron to help incorporate labour unions into the state |
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Term
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Definition
| The influential wife of Juan Peron who is remembered a saint and really represented a voice for women in Juan Peron's government |
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Term
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Definition
| A social welfare charity created by Evita that reached out to children, women, and the elderly, who weren't a part of the working class |
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Term
| National Liberation Alliance (Argentina) |
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Definition
| A paramilitary group created by Peron to begin a campaign of repression against his opposition. |
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Term
| Import-Substitution-Industrialization |
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Definition
| The economic model for Brazil's Getulio Vargas, which put high taxes on foreign goods to encourage Brazilians to buy domestic goods. It also created import quotas |
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Term
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Definition
| A right wing, fascist movement that supported Christianity and tradition. It was a paramilitary movement that received funds from Mussolini's Italy |
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Term
| National Liberation Alliance (Brazil) |
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Definition
| A popular front coalition created in 1935. It was composed of communists, socialists, students, unions, etc. It called for left-wing parties to put away their differences to combat the rise of fascism. It used rallies to build a broad coalition and its enemies included the conservative sectors of society, integralists, and Vargas |
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Term
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Definition
| Unique music and dance form created by Afro-Brazilians. Had become an integral part of Carnaval activities and helped to increase Brazil's international appeal to tourists. |
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Term
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Definition
| Supporters of Vargas who tried to keep Vargas in power in 1945 when there was mass opposition to him |
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Term
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Definition
| A mixed public-private oil company created by Vargas |
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Term
| National Democratic Union |
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Definition
| A right-wing political party that was the biggest critic of Vargas |
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Term
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Definition
| A journalist who led the National Democratic Union and who Vargas's bodyguard had attempted to assassinate |
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Term
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Definition
| Dictator of Cuba until the Cuban Revolution in 1959. Very unpopular by the time of his ousting and lost largely due to an arms embargo from the United States |
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Term
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Definition
| A revolutionary in Cuba who brought down the government of Batista. Was president until recently |
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Term
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Definition
| Area of attack by Fidel Castro on July 26, 1953 that ended in disaster with most of Castro's forces being either killed or captured |
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Term
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Definition
| Brother of Fidel Castro who introduced him to Che Guevara. Currently president of Cuba |
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Term
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Definition
| Latin American leftist who was a key ally of Castro |
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Term
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Definition
| Boat on which Castro and his rebels set out on to invade Cuba in 1956 and start an uprising. Unfortunately landed in wrong spot (swamplands) where Castro was betrayed by some peasants |
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Term
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Definition
| Mountains where Castro retreated to after the Granma disaster. Became his base of operations |
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Term
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Definition
| US-owned oil company that Castro nationalized after it refused to refine cheaper Soviet oil |
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Term
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Definition
| Disastrous CIA operation where the CIA sent Cuban exiles to invade Cuba and get rid of Castro |
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Term
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Definition
| Following the Bay of Pigs, the Soviet Union pledged to protect Cuba and shipped missiles to protect it. When the US found out, the government freaked out and a standoff emerged in 1962. It was a very delicate situation that seemed like it could deteriorate into nuclear warfare. Fortunately, the US and the USSR came to an agreement where the USSR took back the missiles and the US promised not attack Cuba |
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Term
| Committees for the Defense of the Revolution |
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Definition
| A network of committees across Cuba that are designed to put medical, educational, or other campaigns into national effect, and to report "counter-revolutionary" activity |
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Term
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Definition
| Mexican rock and roll bands. Called this because they used US songs for the music and then just rewrote the lyrics |
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Term
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Definition
| A mexican "refrito" rock and roll band |
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Term
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Definition
| Mexican teenage versions of hippies |
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Term
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Definition
| Nickname given to Mexican movies that were more about quantity than quality |
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Term
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Definition
| Popular wrestling in Mexico where wrestlers wore masks and if they lost, they had to take off their masks |
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Term
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Definition
| Popular Mexican wrestler who was never unmasked |
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Term
| Institutionalized Revolutionary Party |
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Definition
| Political party that held power throughout the Mexican Miracle through manipulation and corruption |
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Term
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Definition
| On October 2, 1968, protesters gathered at Tlatelolco square for a peaceful rally. Government responded extremely with police and military surrounding the protesters and shooting into the crowd. Killed 300-700 with many more wounded or arrested |
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Term
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Definition
| Mexican president during the time of the Tlatelolco Massacre |
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Term
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Definition
| Mexican revolutionary who pressed for agrarian reform and began land seizures to reinvigorate the issue until he was killed by the government. |
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Term
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Definition
| Third wife of Juan Peron who was Vice President of Argentina when he died. Became president but was ill-quipped to run the country and allowed the economy to fall apart under her. Organized a death squad to deal with rebels but was eventually ousted by the military. |
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Term
| Argentine Anti-Communist Alliance |
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Definition
| Death squad organized by Isabella Peron to deal with the left-wing guerilla presence |
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Term
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Definition
| Main figure associated with the coup that ousted Isabella Peron. |
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Term
| National Re-Organization Process |
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Definition
| Military plan after the ousting of Isabella Peron in Argentina to dramatically overhaul it. Radically curtailed workers' rights, abolished all political parties, and suspended constitutional rights. |
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Term
| The Mothers of the Plazo de Mayo |
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Definition
| An organization founded by 14 mothers of "disappeared" children in Argentina. Decided to make a public protest in 1977 that garnered a lot of support. Was the 1st significant outcry against military violence in Argentina |
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Term
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Definition
| Islands off the cost of Argentina that Argentina went to war with Great Britain over. Started off as a war with a lot of public support but Argentina was very quickly defeated |
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Term
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Definition
| The first president elected to Argentina after the Dirty War. Brought a truth commission to Argentina but did not want to anger the still strong military. Called for a stop to the prosecutions of the military in 1987 |
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Term
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Definition
| The president of Argentina after Alfonsin who pardoned all the military officers who were convicted |
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Term
| Doctrine of the Two Demons |
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Definition
| A rhetorical device used in Argentine political discourse to disqualify arguments that appear to morally equate violent political subversion with illegal repressive activities carried out by the state |
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Term
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Definition
| A modernizing president of Nicaragua in 1893 who planned to build a canal that would compete with the US Panama Canal and wanted to limit American control in Nicaraguan industries. In 1909, he decided to resign after a revolt broke out with the support of the US |
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Term
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Definition
| A staunch protester to the US presence in Nicaragua. Led a guerilla movement against the US and after the US left, began to fight the US-installed National Guard. Made plans in 1934 to negotiate with the government but was seized after a meeting by the National Guard and promptly executed |
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Term
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Definition
| Beginning with Anastasio, the father and two sons were military dictators of Nicaragua. Extremely corrupt and violent |
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Term
| The Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN) |
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Definition
| Group made up mostly of students that started in opposition to the Somoza regime in Nicaragua. Invaded the national palace in August 1978 causing Somoza to agree to a lot of their demands. Came to power in 1979 |
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Term
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Definition
| A reknowned journalist from a prominent family who was assassinated by Somoza after writing a series of critical articles |
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Term
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Definition
| US president after Carter who worked to get rid of the Sandinistas in Nicaragua/ Hated anything associated with communism and wanted to control the western hemisphere |
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Term
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Definition
| Paramilitary force in Nicaragua that were counter-revolutionary and organized by the Reagan government. Had a devastating effect on the FSLN being able to do anything in Nicaragua |
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Term
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Definition
| FSLN candidate in 1990 after Nicaragua became completely bankrupt from FSLN and contra fighting |
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Term
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Definition
| Opposition candidate to Ortega in 1990 in Nicaragua who won the presidency |
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Term
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Definition
| The distribution of land in El Salvador was unequally held mostly by this group of wealthy families |
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Term
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Definition
| Led protest movements in El Salvador in the 1920s about the land inequalities. Founded a communist party in 1930 and planned an uprising for January of 1932. The plan was discovered however and Marti was killed |
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Term
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Definition
| "The Killing," a period of repression by the El Salvadoran military after the discovering of an insurrection by Marti |
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Term
| The Farabundo Marti Liberation Front |
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Definition
| The combination of 5 guerilla armies in the 1980s in El Salvador to protest military repression |
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Term
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Definition
| Belief of the Catholic Church in El Salvador that the poor deserve justice now. Led to the foundation of Christian base communities that offered bible study and political discussion groups |
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Term
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Definition
| Most articulate supporter of liberation theology in El Salvador. Called for a stop to the repression only to be assassinated while giving mass on March 24, 1980 |
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Term
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Definition
| El Mozote was a peasant community in El Salvador that about a half mile from a FMLN base, though they weren't really linked to the FMLN. In December 1981, El Salvadoran troops entered into El Mozote with the idea that El Mozote was a FMLN base and killed a 1000 civilians. American journalists reported this massacre but the US government denied the story as FMLN propaganda |
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Term
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Definition
| An herbicide US planes sprayed on coca plants in South America. It was effective in getting rid of coca but also poisoned the groundwater and killed small animals |
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Term
| The National Liberation Army (ELN) |
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Definition
| A guerilla force founded by students and most active in areas where land oil was a problem. Centered around liberation theology and focused its activities on sabotage |
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Term
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Definition
| Current president of Colombia who has used almost 6 billion in aid from the US to repress guerillas |
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Term
| Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) |
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Definition
| A guerilla force that is a direct offshoot of the Colombian communist party. Peasants who joined the FARC were very disenchanted with the Colombian state. The group started as defensive group from the 1960s-1980s but by later 1990s, it had become an offensive group. Gained access to money due to its accessibility to cocaine and aggravates the cocaine problem nowadays |
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Term
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Definition
| Colombian president who offered peaceful negotiations to the FARC in 1982 |
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Term
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Definition
| The political party formed by the FARC in 1982 after the president offered peaceful negotiations. However, members of the Patriotic Union were systematically targeted for assassination and convinced many in the FARC that the Colombian government couldn't be trusted |
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Term
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Definition
| The founder of the FARC who recently died in 2008 |
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Term
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Definition
| The 1st paramilitary organization developed in Colombia to deal with the kidnappings by the FARC |
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Term
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Definition
| Crimes generally tacked on homosexuals in Brazil in the 1800s that included public display of a gay relationship and crossdressing |
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Term
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Definition
| A night in Cuba where police up all men suspected of homosexuality and detained them |
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Term
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Definition
| A gay organization developed in Argentina in 1969 |
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Term
| Homosexual Liberation Front (FLH) |
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Definition
| The combination of Nuestro Mundo and other gay pride organization sin 1971 in Argentina. Very vocal in their efforts to gain rights for gys |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 gay characters on the telenovela, America, in Brazil where them kissing was never shown |
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Term
| Joao Francisco dos Santos |
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Definition
| Brazilian gangster and famous crossdresser ("Madama Sata") |
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| Convention on the rights of indigenous peoples that allowed them to develop their own cultures and religions |
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| Ecuador's indigenous people |
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| The largest indigenous group of the Amazonian region |
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| The Confederation of Indigenous Ethnicities of Ecuador (CONIAE) |
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| The combination of Andean and Amazonian organizations that claims to support about 70% of the indigenous population in Ecuador. Actions are directed towards the state for them to make changes. Led a series of high-profile protests |
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| President of Ecuador in 2000 who was forced out of power by CONIAE due to plans for dollarization (get rid of the currency of Ecuador and adopt the US dollar) |
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| The capital city of Ecuador. The rainforest around it has been all but obliterated and environmental degradation is severe, with catastrophic oil pollution in some areas |
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| An idea of justice and equality often evoked by Venezuelan president, Hugo Chavez |
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| Confederation of Venezuelan Workers |
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| A confederation of workers within Venezuela who feel that workers don't have enough voice in government. Key source of opposition to Chavez |
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| Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas |
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| Trade agreements between Latin American countries that exclude the US |
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| An oil company to provide for Latin America |
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| Hugo Chavez's call-in program that allows citizens to voice their concerns |
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| Television channel shut down by Chavez after the coup that briefly ousted him due their never ceasing airing of anti-Chavez propaganda |
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| The left-wing ideology based on the ideas, programs, and government style associated with Hugo Chavez |
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| an agave whose leaves yield a fiber also called henequen which is suitable for rope and twine, but not of as high a quality as sisal. It is the major plantation fiber agave of eastern Mexico, being grown extensively in Yucatán, Veracruz, and southern Tamaulipas. |
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| the excrement (feces and urine) of seabirds, bats, and seals. Guano manure is an effective fertilizer and gunpowder ingredient due to its high levels of phosphorus and nitrogen and also its lack of odor. Superphosphate made from guano is used for aerial topdressing. Soil that is deficient in organic matter can be made more productive by addition of this manure. |
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| a natural white crystalline alkaloid having antipyretic (fever-reducing), antimalarial, analgesic (painkilling), and anti-inflammatory properties and a bitter taste. It is a stereoisomer of quinidine. Quinine was the first effective treatment for malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum, appearing in therapeutics in the 17th century. It remained the antimalarial drug of choice until the 1940s, when other drugs took over. |
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| A Peruvian politician and the first civilian President of Peru. Born in Lima, Peru, he was the founder of the most important political party of the era (Civilista Party). He was elected president by the Peruvian Congress after a failed coup launched by colonel Tomás Gutierrez. One of the most controversial acts that were committed during his presidency was the signing of a "Mutual Protection Pact" with Bolivia in 1873. The objective of this pact was to protect themselves from what they perceived as "Chilean Imperialism" and a growing desire of Chile for the allied provinces of Tarapaca and Litoral. |
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| A promoter/con man and railroad builder.He left San Francisco before the fraud was discovered, on October 6, 1854, in the brig American, heading for South America. According to his own statement, he landed with only $8,000 (his fraud raised, by some accounts, half a million), lost it immediately, and had to pawn his watch. Meiggs became a successful railroad builder, building the second railroad in Chile, between Santiago and Valparaiso. He also built many railroads in Peru, and died in 1877 in Lima, Peru while constructing a railroad in Costa Rica which was completed by his nephew, Minor C. Keith. He is said to have been the virtual dictator of Peru by that time, known as "Don Enrique", with interests ranging from silver mines to cleaning up the city of Lima by building a seven-mile-long park. |
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| was a Mexican politician who would later become the President of Mexico from 1876 to 1880 and from 1884 to 1911, and one of the most controversial figures of the country. The term Porfiriato refers to the years when Díaz ruled Mexico. |
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| The name commonly used to designate the Mexican Guardia Rural (Rural Guard): a force of mounted police or gendarmerie that existed between 1861 and 1914. |
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| A circle of technocratic advisors to President of Mexico Porfirio Díaz. Steeped in the positivist "scientific politics", they functioned as part of his program of modernization at the start of the 20th century. |
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| The Latin American people who would become the Aztecs |
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| The capital city of the Aztecs |
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| The alliance with two other city-states by the Mexica to bring down the major power in Latin America in 1428 and help make the Aztec empire |
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| Form of agriculture of the Aztecs where they used sludge from the bottom of the marsh and put on existing land to create very fertile land |
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| Wars fought by the Aztec just to gain captives |
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| Period between 250-900 when the Mayans were at their strongest |
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| The Mayan intellectual center where astronomers figured out how long the year was and where scientific conferences were held |
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| The Mayan cultural center known for its architecture and located in modern day Guatemala |
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| Sacred ceremony of the Mayans to offer blood to their gods |
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