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| anything that stands for something else |
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| explain how the world works while relying on simplification (designed to lead audience to action with classic story of decline) |
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| a symbol can mean two (or more) things simultaneously; example would be "equal opportunity in education" |
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| small steps leading to policy changes |
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| dramatic steps that lead to policy change |
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| work and personnel expand to consume all available resources |
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| in hierarchal organizations, personnel are promoted up to the point at which their incompetence becomes manifest - hence, all important positions are held by incompetents |
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| top bureaucrats seek to maximize the total budget of their bureau during their tenure - hence, all bureaucracies are too large |
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| first established by Marbury v. Madison; most commonly leads to upholding legislation, interpreting how laws apply to specific cases |
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| look to the language of statute (or Constitution); strict construction |
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