Term
| What is GTS - Geological Time Scale? |
|
Definition
| System of chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy to time. It describes timing and relationship between events that have occurred throughout Earth's History. |
|
|
Term
| How old is the Earth? How long have modern human beings been here? |
|
Definition
| 4.5 Billion years -- 250,000 years. |
|
|
Term
| Why is evolution a slow process? |
|
Definition
| Changes can only occur in each successive generation, and helpful mutations only occur very rarely. Situations where different adaptations are necessary are exceedingly rare. |
|
|
Term
| What are the six subfields of Biological Anthropology? Briefly describe each. |
|
Definition
| Paleopathology - is the study of ancient diseases. It is useful in understanding the history of diseases, and uses this understanding to predict its course in the future. Paloeoanthropology - The study of ancient humans as found in fossil hominid evidence such as footprints or petrifacted bones. Forensic Anthropology - the application of the science of physical anthropology and human osteology in a legal setting, most often in criminal cases where the victim's remains are in the advanced stages of decomposition. Human Biology - interdisciplinary study that examines humans through a diverse range of fields such as genetics, physiology, ecology, and epidemiology. Osteology / Skeletal Biology - Concerned with bones. |
|
|
Term
| 4 Subfields of Anthropology |
|
Definition
| Cultural Anthropology - The study of humans through their various cultures and groups. Biological Anthropology - Studies the physical development of the human species. Linguistic Anthropology - The study of how language influences the social life of humans. Archaeology - The study of human activity in the past, through recovery of their material culture like artifacts and architecture. |
|
|
Term
| What characteristics of a course of study make it a science? |
|
Definition
| Critical thinking (a way of questioning assumptions and testing theories); the Scientific Method (question, research, formulate hypothesis, test, analyze, report); and collaboration with others in the field. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A framework containing all currently accepted views about a subject. |
|
|
Term
| What is the primary paradigm of biological anthropology? |
|
Definition
| Evolution via natural selection. |
|
|
Term
| What are the fact and theory of evolution? How do the fact/theory of evolution differ? |
|
Definition
| Fact: Life on Earth has changed over time. Theory: Hypothesis to explain observed changes. -- A fact is indisputable, life did change over time. All of the theories need to be tested. |
|
|
Term
| What is "The Great Chain of Being" aka "Scala Natura?" |
|
Definition
| The ordered ranking of life on Earth, as described by the Greeks and Romans, specifically Plato and Aristotle. The chain starts from God(s), and then descends down to angels, demigods, stars, then to Kings and Queens and rulers, then to men, then to animals, plants, trees, metals, and stones. |
|
|
Term
| What is Catastrophism and who was the main proponent of it? |
|
Definition
| It is the theory that Earth has been effected in the past by sudden, violent events, possibly worldwide in scope. Georges Cuvier is the main proponent. |
|
|
Term
| What is Linnean Taxonomy? Why did it have an effect on the ideas of evolution? |
|
Definition
| A system for naming organism. It gave us the binomial nomenclature used today. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 18th Century Scholar who argued that the actual age of the Earth was much older than 6000 years. He perceived a dynamic relationship between organism and environment. He had to recant these ideas because of the church. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Studied environment and inheritance, forming a rough evolutionary theory that actually predates Darwin. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The originator of the theory of natural selection, which is the non-random process by which biological traits become more or less common in a population as a function of differential reproduction of their bearers. It is central to evolution. He published his findings in the highly influential 1859 book "On the Origin of the Species" |
|
|
Term
| Wo are Wallace and Matthius? |
|
Definition
Wallace: Independently came up with the theory of natural selection, apart from Darwin. He actually asked Darwin's opinion of it.
Matthius: He was a population economist. Saw exponential growth in humans and that the environment favors some characteristics over others. His ideas heavily influenced Darwin. |
|
|
Term
| Three Components of Change Associated With Evolution |
|
Definition
1. Law of Use/Disuse - Attributed to Lamarck. We lose characteristics we do not use and keep characteristics that we do.
2. Will to Change
3. Change within lifetime of an organism. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An anti-evolutionist. He reconstructed fossils in rock strata and placed strata in order with distinct fossils. Believed God created each layer after catastrophic events and that humans are in the last layer. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Important figures in the theory of Uniformitarianism, which is the assumption that the same natural laws & processes that operate in the universe now have always operated in the universe, and thus the present is the key to the past. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The model of the solar system which places Earth's sun at the center. Isaac Newton was the first big proponent. |
|
|
Term
| What are the four causes for variation of traits in a species? |
|
Definition
| Random Mutation - A change to the genome, which happens at random. Sexual Reproduction - Mixes traits from father and mother. Gene Flow - The transference of alleles from one population to another. Genetic Drift - change in the frequency of a gene variant (allele) in a population due to random sampling. |
|
|
Term
| What is the Founder Effect? Give an example. |
|
Definition
| A modern population of a specific area may be descended from a remnant population after a natural disaster. Such as the eruption of Mt. Toba on the island of Sumatra 74,000 years ago which perhaps reduced the global population to as low as 15,000. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 2 subsets of selection in natural selection? Describe each. |
|
Definition
Ecological Selection - Nature determines how well the particular traits of an organism can help the survival and reproduction of an organism.
Sexual Selection - Acts on factors that contribute to mating success.
|
|
|
Term
| 8 concepts associated with Natural Selection? |
|
Definition
1. Variation
2. Individuals
3. Traits that increase a genotype's inclusive fitness
4. Existence of mutations
5. Does not induce genetic variation to happen
6. Does not have foresight
7. Does not operate on a uniform population
8. Complex traits must evolve through intermediates |
|
|
Term
| Misconceptions About Natural Selection |
|
Definition
Not a force of nature - it only occurs by chance.
It is not synonymous with "survival of the fittest"
It wont lead to a population with an optimal set of traits. |
|
|
Term
| What does Heterozygous mean? |
|
Definition
| Containing two different alleles |
|
|
Term
| What does Heterogametic mean? Homogametic? |
|
Definition
1. Has XY sex chromosome
2. Has XX sex chromosome. |
|
|
Term
| Why is Natural Selection Dependant on Mutation? |
|
Definition
| Natural Selection cannot operate on a uniform population. There must be a variation of traits - some of which will hinder, some of which will help. |
|
|
Term
What is a macromutation?
A Micromutaion? |
|
Definition
A mutation of large phenotypic (observable) effect. Like Dwarfism.
-
A mutation of small phenotypic effect. Grizzly bear vs. polar bear. |
|
|
Term
| What are Adaptation and Exaptation? |
|
Definition
Adaptation - A biological adaptation is an anatomical structure, physiological process or behavioral trait of an organism that has evolved over a period of time by the process of natural selection such that it increases the expected long-term reproductive success of the organism.
Exaptation - an evolutionary process in which a given adaptation is first naturally selected for, and subsequently used by the organism for something other than its original, intended purpose. Such as evolving wings for temperature control, that are too small for flying.
|
|
|
Term
| What is convergent evolution? |
|
Definition
| Organisms not closely related sometimes independently develop the same set of traits. |
|
|
Term
| What is a Gene? What other names are associated with it? |
|
Definition
| A particulate unit of inheritance passed on from one generation to the next. The term was ID'ed by Willhelm Johansen in 1906. Other names identified with the term: Genmules (Darwin), Determinants (Weisman), and allelomorphes (Mendel). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Genomics studies the interaction which characterizes the function and behavior of DNA and its associated structures. |
|
|
Term
| What are the 5 Levels of Genetic Study? Briefly describe each. |
|
Definition
Cellular and Molecular Genetics - Examines the precise make-up of DNA.
Mendelian Genetics - How traits pass to the next generation, looking at observable traits (phenotypes).
Population Genetics - How different populations within a species differ from each other.
Phylogenetics - Geneology in regard to genetics. Determines the evolutionary relationships that exist between species.
Behavioral Genetics - Control of behavior through genes. This is significant in social animals, but is difficult to follow in higher beings. |
|
|
Term
| What is a Prokaryote? What is a Eukaryote? |
|
Definition
Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms which lack a cell nucleus that appeared about 4 billion years ago. They reproduce asexually and have limited evolutionary potential.
Eukaryotes - Cells with a nucleus that keep their genetic material seperate from the rest of their organelles. They have a semi-permeable cell membrane. Animals, plants, fungi. 10 trillion of these make up the human body. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A somatic cell is a cell which forms the body of an organism. |
|
|
Term
| What are stems cells? Why is this area of research under fire? |
|
Definition
Stems cells exist at the earliest stage of development of the embryo. They are "totepotent" cells, which means that they can do anything.
The controversy stems from the fact that when the cells are harvested, the embryo dies. The question is whether an embryo is life or not. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Deoxyribonucleic acid, a self-replicating material present in nearly all living organisms as the main constituent of chromosomes. It is the carrier of genetic information and is central to protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ribonucleic Acid. Acts as a messenger carrying information from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Messenger Ribonucleic Acid.
The form of RNA in which genetic information transcribed from DNA as a sequence of bases is transferred to a ribosome. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An organism found in large numbers in most cells where the biochemical process of respiration and energy production occur. Provides the cell with energy by oxidizing biological fuels such as lipids, proteins, and glucose into ATP. |
|
|
Term
| What is Endoplasmic Reticulum? |
|
Definition
| A network of membranous tubules within the cytoplasm of a Eukaryotic cell, continuous with the nuclear membrane. |
|
|
Term
| What three functions does DNA have? |
|
Definition
1. Cellular Replication
2. Protein synthesis in cell.
3Regulation of proteins (coordinating activity and development) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A basic unit of DNA is constructed of 4 different nucleotides (adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thyamine), which are arranged depending upon the nitrogen base. Each nucleotide has 3 parts: sugar, a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. The nucleotides bond together, and molecular DNA is shaped into a double helix formation, a two-sided ladder-like structure which allows easy opening and closing. |
|
|
Term
| When errors occur when DNA replicates, what happens? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| How and where are proteins synthesized in the cells? What does DNA have to do with this process? |
|
Definition
Protein is synthesized in Ribosomes. It happens through a process called Translation. See card: Translation.
DNA gives the code that when read, contains the information that instructs protein synthesis. |
|
|
Term
| What are essential Amino Acids? |
|
Definition
| An essential amino acid is an acid that is required by animals in order to live, but is an acid that they cannot synthesize, therefore it must be obtained through diet. There are 9 essential amino acids. |
|
|
Term
| What is a protein made up of? |
|
Definition
| Amino acids. Specifically a long chain of amino acids called a polypeptide chain, which is about 200 Amino Acids long. The chain folds and bends to become a protein. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A sequence of three nucleotides (a triplet) which together form a unit of genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species. |
|
|
Term
| Chromatin vs. Chromasomes |
|
Definition
| Chronatins make up chromosomes. During Interphase (See card for Interphase) chromatin begins to unravel then becomes chromosomes during Prophase (see card for Prophase) |
|
|
Term
How many chromosomes do humans have?
Chimps? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The specific location of a gene or DNA sequence of a chromasome. |
|
|
Term
| What is an Allele? How many alleles in a single gene? |
|
Definition
One of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome.
Each specific gene has two alleles (one from the father and one from the mother). |
|
|
Term
| Nuclear vs. Mitochondrial DNA |
|
Definition
mtDNA is located in organelles called mitochondria. It is of a seperate evolutionary origin.
Nuclear DNA genes get rearranged in the process of recombination but there is no change in mtDNA. mtDNA is a powerful tool for tracking lineage. |
|
|
Term
| What is the cell cycle? How many stages are there? |
|
Definition
| The cell cycle, or cell-division cycle, is the series of events that takes place in a cell leading to its division and duplication. There are two stages: Interphase (see card) and Mitosis phase (see card). |
|
|
Term
| Mitosis and the phases of Mitosis |
|
Definition
Mitosis is the somatic cell replication cycle. The 5 stages of cell division are:
Interphase - DNA is replicated, but the cell is not dividing.
Prophase - The Nuclear membrane disappears and chromosomes are seen. The cell polarizes. Two identical sets of chromatids after replication.
Metaphase - Chromosomes line up at the equatorial center of the cell.
Anaphase - Chromatids split and migrate to opposite sides of the cell. Diploid # now present at each end of the cell.
Telephase - Two new cells when cytoplasm splits - identical to parent cell.
|
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Meiosis is the formation of gametes (sperm or eggs), which occurs in the testes or ovaries. It is similar to Mitosis, but slightly different. Meiosis results in 4 genetically unique haploid cells compared with 4 genetically identical diploid cells produced by Mitosis. |
|
|
Term
| What happens when chromosomes don't distribute correctly during meiosis? |
|
Definition
| Medical and developmental problems. |
|
|
Term
| What causes Turner's syndrome? What causes Down's syndrome? |
|
Definition
Turner's syndrome: Monosamy - a failure to properly seperate during Meiosis.
Down's Syndrome: Trisomy of Chromosome #21 - either extra #21 or part of an extra #21. |
|
|
Term
| When did Gregor Mendel make his discovery about the concept of genetics? What did he experiment with? Was he in contact with Darwin at the time? What did he discover? |
|
Definition
1. 1866
2. Peas
3. Yes
4. Certain traits show up in offspring without any blending parental characteristics. F-1 X F-1 traits disappeared in first breeding, reappeared in 3rd. |
|
|
Term
| Mendel's Law of Individual Assortment vs. Mendel's Law of Independent Segregation. And why don't they always hold true? |
|
Definition
Law of Independent Assortment: Distribution of one pair of homologous chromosomes has nothing to do with any other pair.
Law of Independent Segregation: Homologous chromosomes separate during gamete formation, and do so at random.
They don't always hold true because sometimes there are linked genes. Organisms can inherit the alleles for each trait when two alleles of a pair are different, one is dominant, and one is recessive. |
|
|
Term
| What is the difference between a structural gene and a regulatory gene? |
|
Definition
Structural genes contain the information to make protein and are similar across all related species. The gene is altered if regulatory areas are missing or altered.
Regulatory genes further guide the expression of genetic structure and are critical in determining the form of an organism, such as a human or a chimp. |
|
|
Term
| What are Dominant, Recessive, Co-dominant, Incomplete Dominance, Genotype, and Phenotype |
|
Definition
Dominant - Genes that overpower the other versions. Example: you have two versions of each gene, so if you have brown version (B) and a blue version (b) you will still have brown eyes.
Recessive - Genes that are submissive to other versions.
Co-dominant - Two or more dominant genes existing together
Incomplete Dominance - when one gene isn't completely dominant to another. Instead they "mix" together to display a different trait.
Genotype - Full genetic information, even if not expressed.
Phenotype - Genetic information that is not expressed. |
|
|
Term
| What are sex-related Genetic Effects? |
|
Definition
1. Sex-limited Genes: Present in both sexes, though they show different phenotypes. Ex: Male elephants get big and agressive while female elephants are smaller and shun aggression.
2. Sex-Controlled Genes: Expressed in both sexes, although differently. Ex: Gout is 8 times more likely in men.
3. Genome Imprinting: Different effect depending upon gender of the parent it is inherited from. Ex: Psoriasis, Diabetes. |
|
|
Term
| What is a Point Mutation? |
|
Definition
| It causes the replacement of a single base nucleotide with another nucleotide of genetic material. One major example is Sickle Cell Anemia (see Sickle Cell Anemia card). |
|
|
Term
| What is Sickle Cell Anemia? Why is it important to the study of Anthropology? |
|
Definition
Hemoglobin proteins stick together and cause an abnormal shape of the Red Blood Cells. These sickle cells are not flexible and they clump easily, and can cause damage to organs. The result is chronic anemia. Two genes for the sickle cell must be inherited.
Those with sickle cell anemia are less likely to get malaria, therefore leading to higher reproductive fitness in certain propulations with high malaria exposure. |
|
|
Term
| What are X-linked Genetic Disorders? |
|
Definition
| Single gene disorders that reflect the presence of defective genes on the X chromosome. They are either dominant or recessive disorders. Dominant disorders affect both males and females. |
|
|
Term
| Identify and explain 2 X-linked genetic disorders. |
|
Definition
Hemophilia - A medical condition in which the ability of the blood to clot is severely reduced.
Color Blindness - A color vision deficiency.
|
|
|
Term
| What are Autosomal Dominant Disorders? |
|
Definition
| Only one copy of the mutated gene is required for the person to be affected. |
|
|
Term
| What are Autosomal Recessive Disorders? |
|
Definition
| Two copies of the gene must be mutated for a person to be affected. |
|
|
Term
| What is Huntington's Chorea? |
|
Definition
| An Autosomal Dominant Disorder which is caused by a nucleotide coding repeat (CAG repeats -- 10-35 repeats are normal, disease with 40-120 repeats). Child of parents with Huntingtons has 50% chance of getting it. The disease causes involuntary movements and loss of motor control, a loss of memory and mental abilities, and is usually fatal in 8-25 years. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Dwarfism. Come on, you know what this is! Another autosomal disorder which causes abnormal body proportions. 80% are new mutations. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Phenylketonuria. A deficiency of a specific enzyme: phenylalimine hydrolase. Causes mental retardation. The phenylalamine stays in blood and causes damage to developing nerves, making it neurotoxic. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| An autosomal recessive disorder which is chronic, progressive, and frequently fatal. It primarily affects the mucous glands, causing severe respiratory and gastrointestinal (GI) effects. The disease has an increased frequency in white Europeans. It causes malnutrition, poor growth, and crippling respiratory infections with permanent lung damage. |
|
|
