Term
| what's the most common way to prep histo slides? |
|
Definition
1. fix tissue in formalin
2. embed in paraffin wax
3. section tissue and place on glass slides
4. stain |
|
|
Term
| whats the most common stain for light microscopy? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the properties of a basic dye? and how do they work? |
|
Definition
| dye+Cl-. they react with anionic groups in tissues/cells |
|
|
Term
| what does hematoxylin stain, why? |
|
Definition
| heterochromatin and nucleoli of the nucleus b/c they have nucleic acids that are anionic |
|
|
Term
| What other cell parts does hematoxylin stain and why? |
|
Definition
glycosaminoglycans b/c of sulfate grps
rough ER b/c of nucleic acids in mRNA |
|
|
Term
| what do we call things that stain with hematoxylin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does eosin react with? give examples |
|
Definition
| cationic grps. cytoplasmic filaments (muscles cells), cytoplasm, mitochondria, collagen type I fibers/ |
|
|
Term
| what color does eosin and hematoxylin stain things? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are substances that stain with eosin called? |
|
Definition
| eosinophilic or acidophilic |
|
|
Term
| what is TEM? what is it used for? |
|
Definition
| transmission electom micro. used for sub-cellular analysis like inside cells to see organelles |
|
|
Term
| how are tem slides prepped? |
|
Definition
| fixed, embed in plastic, sectioned, stained with heavy metals. |
|
|
Term
| what are the two main types of stained structures we see in TEM? |
|
Definition
electron dense=black
white/pale gray=electron lucent |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell-type specific membrane or non-mem bound materials in cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| organelles are also mem and nonmem bound structures in cytoplasm but are common to ALL cells |
|
|
Term
| what else do we call cell membrane? (2) |
|
Definition
| plasma mem (pm) and plasmalemma |
|
|
Term
| what things are in cell mems? |
|
Definition
| prot, cholesterol, lipids, carbs |
|
|
Term
| what microscopy lets us look at mems? |
|
Definition
| transmission electron microscopy (TEM) or freeze gracture technique use with TEM |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polar head with 2 fatty a chains |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| polar head with 2 fatty a chains |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| lipids with 1+ carb attached to it |
|
|
Term
| what side of a cell are glycolipids found? |
|
Definition
| outside (extracellular) side |
|
|
Term
| what do plasma membranes (pms) look like in TEM? what's the seen structure called? |
|
Definition
| two electron dense dark likes with and electron lucent stip in between. called unit membrane or trilaminar mem. |
|
|
Term
| describe structure of cholesterol (chol) in a pm |
|
Definition
| hydroxyl (OH) grp that aligns with phosphate heads of bilayer |
|
|
Term
| what does cholesterol do for pms? |
|
Definition
| helps prevent to stiff or too rigid pms |
|
|
Term
| how do we classify prots in pms |
|
Definition
| based on how they interact with phosopholipids. |
|
|
Term
| what are the types and definitions of pm prots? |
|
Definition
1. integral mem prots: partially or fully embedding in bilayer, cant be removed without busting up the pm. two types(transmembrane prots and glycoprots where transmem prots are exposed on both mem sides and glycoprots have carbs attached)
2. peripheral mem prots: prots indirectly linked to pm by prot-prot interactions. often associated with cytoskeleton/cytoplasmic side, but can do both sides. |
|
|
Term
| what are the 6 specific types of mem prots ? |
|
Definition
1. pumps: tport ions, aas, sugars using E
2. channels: make pores
3. receptors: bind to extracellular prot ligands and initiate something inside cell
4. linkers: transmem prots that link cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix
5. enzymes: anything from ion tport to digestion
6. structural prots: from cell2cell anchoring or adhesion junctions, or cell2extracellmatrix adhesion junctions |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carbohydrate coat on xtracell surface or cells that have glycoprots and glycolipids. |
|
|
Term
| two examples where glycocalyx is |
|
Definition
1. small intestine absorptive cells(enterocytes)
2. cells lining proximal convoluted tubule in kidney |
|
|
Term
| two examples where glycocalyx is |
|
Definition
1. small intestine absorptive cells(enterocytes)
2. cells lining proximal convoluted tubule in kidney |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protect cell surgace, cell cell interactions, holds fluids to cell surface, receptor sites, enzyme reactions |
|
|
Term
| ex of glycocalyx holding liquid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ex of when glycocalyx participates in enzyme rxns |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| describe the freeze fracture technique and the resulting image |
|
Definition
| freeze specimen, fracture with knife blade, and the cell splits along phospholipid bilayer. you get two faces, E face (extracellular) and P face (protoplasmic/cytoplasmic face). then a metal replica is prepared of the two faces. integral prots look like lil bumps on image but mostly integral prots stay on the P face side. the E side has pits on it where the transmem proteins once were. |
|
|
Term
| what type of mem does the nucleus have? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what BIG processes does the nucleus split up? |
|
Definition
| transcribing DNA to mRNA from translation of mRNA into prots |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| complex of DNA histones and other nuclear proteins |
|
|
Term
nucleosome
many nucleosomes put together |
|
Definition
| DNA wrapped around histones into "beads on a string". then several nucleosomes put together are called chromatin fibers or fibrils. |
|
|
Term
| what level of dna organization is transcriptionally active? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| organizational levels of genetic info |
|
Definition
| dna--(+histones)--> beads on a string/nucleosomes--(more histones)--> nucleosome--(+chromosome scaffold)-->extended scaffold associated form---(+folding)-->condensed scaffold associated form--(+more folding)-->chromosome |
|
|
Term
| what are the two forms of chromatin? how can we see them? |
|
Definition
euchromatin: stretched out chromatin thats transcribing.
heterochromatin: condensed that is not transcribing. can see with light and electron microscopy. |
|
|
Term
| what do euchromatin and heterochromatin look like with TEM and light micro? |
|
Definition
| euchromatin: under light micro it is less basophilic or less blue b/c of less hematoxylin. in TEM i is pale (electron lucent). heterochromatin is basophilic in light micro and electron dark in TEM |
|
|
Term
| what are the three locations and names of heterochromatin in a cell |
|
Definition
1. marginal heterochrom around the perimeter of nuc
2. karyosomes:clumps around the nuc
3. heterochromatin of the nucleolus |
|
|
Term
| what happens at nucleolus? |
|
Definition
| rRNA transcription and processing and and the site of initial ribosome assembly |
|
|
Term
| what's an "initial ribosome" |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| discrete aggregate of rRNA, genes that code for rRNA and protein in nucleus. no mem. originates from specific chrom sites called nucleolar organizing regions. |
|
|
Term
| describe the process of genes that code for rRNA making ribosomes |
|
Definition
| genes that code for rRNA are in nucleolus. they are transcribed into rRNA there. Then rRNA make small and large subunits of ribosomes. they leave nucleus thru nuc pores. then more stuff is added/adjusted and they are put together to make ribosomes in the cytoplasm. |
|
|
Term
| structure of nuc envelope. what each part does or touches, kind of. |
|
Definition
| inner and outer mem with middle perinuclear space. inner mem is attached to nuclear lamina (made of intermediate filaments) that organizes nuc materials, direct cell ccle reg and differentiation. the perinuc space is continuous with ER. outer nuc mem is continuous with ER mem and may have ribos in it. |
|
|
Term
| describe stucture of nuclear pores |
|
Definition
| the inner and outer nuc mem are continuous with eachother |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how are nuc pores identified |
|
Definition
| using TEM and look fro breaks in marginal heterochromatin |
|
|
Term
| what diffuses freely thru nuc pores? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what diffuses freely thru nuc pores? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| draw nuclear pore with lumenal subunit, column subunit, nuclear fibril, nuclear basket, cytosolic fibrin, annular subunit, ring tunit, nuclear lamina |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the two types of fibrils seen in nuclear pore? |
|
Definition
| nuclear fibril (which is the stringy things attaching the nuclear basket) and cytostolic fibril which is the ones sticking out of the ring subunit |
|
|
Term
| how do proteins get in and out of nuc? |
|
Definition
| for import they need a nuclear localization signal, for export they need a nuclear export sequence |
|
|
Term
| how do types of RNA get out of nuc |
|
Definition
| they also need a nuclear export sequence which is unique to the type of RNA it is (rRNA, mRNA and tRNA) |
|
|
Term
| what is the function of the sER? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where do we see a lot of developed sER? ex? what does it look like? |
|
Definition
| steroid secreting cells like Leydig teste cells, ovary cells and adrenal gland cells. looks like cytoplasm has a bunch of oval, circular and irreular slices of sER tubules |
|
|
Term
| what does sER in liver do? |
|
Definition
| convert water insoluble things into hydrophilic things that can leave body via urine. they can deal with lipophilic drugs to excrete them. |
|
|
Term
| what ares sER in skeletal and cardiac muscles called, what do they do? |
|
Definition
| sarcoplasmic reticulum. functions as resovoir for calcium. |
|
|
Term
| what does rER look like in TEM |
|
Definition
| parallel mem-limited flat sacs called cisternae with lil dots attached |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does rER do to cell slides using light micro? |
|
Definition
| if there are large amts of rER in cytoplasm then the cytoplasm will appear basophilic instead of eosinophilic |
|
|
Term
| where do the proteins go that are made in rER? |
|
Definition
| some stay in ER, Golgi App (GA), lysosomes, pm and secretion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| non ER-bound ribos that make cytosolic prots, peripheral mem prots and other prots for nuc, mito and peroxisomes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| modifies, packages and sots prots made in rER |
|
|
Term
| what types of prots are modified by GA? |
|
Definition
| secretory prots, glycoprots, pm prots, lysosomal prots. |
|
|
Term
| describe pathway of diff prots made by diff ribos |
|
Definition
preprots made by rER go to GA. From there they are modified and go to: excretion, pm, glycoprots, lysosomes.
free ribos make prots that: go to cytosol, nucleus, peroxisome and mito |
|
|
Term
| besides prots what else does GA make? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what and where are the three faces of the GA |
|
Definition
| cis: faces ER and nucleus, medial: mid GA, trans: concave towards cytoplasm |
|
|
Term
| what takes materials from cis to trans golgi |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do prots made in rER get to GA? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do prots get out of GA? |
|
Definition
| clathrin coated vesicles that drop the clathin triskelions. or in non clathrin coated vesicles |
|
|
Term
| which vesicles from GA become endosomes or lysosomes? |
|
Definition
| ones with mannose6phosphate residues attached |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a vesicle fuses with pm and excretes its stuff |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when a vesicle fuses with pm and excretes its stuff |
|
|
Term
| what are the two pathways of exocytosis? |
|
Definition
1. constitutive secretory pathway: prots released right after synthesis
2. regulated secretory path: prots temporarily stored in secretory vesicles and then hormonal or neural stimulation releases them. Ca+ influx stimulates vesicle to fuse with pm. |
|
|
Term
| ex of two exocytosis pathways |
|
Definition
constitutive secretory pathway: immunoglobulin secreted by plasma cells and tropocollagen secreted by fibroblasts.
2. zymogen granules with digestive enzymes released by acinar cells of pancrease |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| mem bond organelles that have an acidic pH and have hydrolytic enzymes (NZ) |
|
|
Term
| what is the pH in lysosomes? how can we tell if an NZ is a hydrolase? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do lysosomes maintain pH |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what do lysosomes look like in TEM? |
|
Definition
| inactive lysos will be round with a mem that's empty (looks like peroxisome). active lysosomes are heterogenuous looking with more irregular shape and a bunch of stuff inside. |
|
|
Term
| describe lysosome formation |
|
Definition
| acid hydrolases are made in rER and go to GA. they are modified and mannose6phosphate is added. the m6p/hydrolase complex moves thru GA. at TGN there are m6p receptors that grap on to m6p/hydrolase complex. this part of TGN is coated in clathrin used for trafficing. coated vesicle buds off. clathrin comes of. meanwhile endosomes coming in from endocytosis are using atp pumps to get real acidic in the inside. these acidic (6-6.8)these "late endososmes" fuse with the vesicles containing the m6p/hydrolase complex and the hydrolase is released and now we have an primary lysosome. |
|
|
Term
| in what ways do lysosomes degrade stuff. name and define |
|
Definition
1. autophagy: eating old cell parts. ER surrounds old cell parts making autophagosomes. these fuse with primary lysosomes making autophagolysosomes (secondary lysosomes). these eat the old cell junk.
2. phagocytosis: pm surrounds larger things like bacteria and make phagosomes. primary lysosomes fuse with pphagosomes to make phagolysosome (secondary lysosome).
3. proteins with lysosome signal go straight to lysosome to get ate
4. some junk brought INTO cell in early endosomes which can be tferred to late endosome which can go to those hydrolase vesicles |
|
|
Term
| fluid phase endocytosis, def and aka |
|
Definition
| aka pinocytosis. taking in any fluids, independant of clathrin. constituitive (continuous) process |
|
|
Term
| receptor mediated endocytosis |
|
Definition
| uptake of specific molecules that is clathrin dependent |
|
|
Term
| describe process of receptor mediated endocytosis |
|
Definition
| specific molecules attach to their receptors on the pm. this part of pm has clathrin coat on inside (called clatherin pit). buds off inside. then one of these things can happen: 1. receptor is kept and ligand degraded 2. receptor and ligand are recycled 3. both are degraded 4. both are tported thru the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| single mem bound organells with tones of diff enzymes but 40% have catalse |
|
|
Term
| where are their most peroxisomes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where are their most peroxisomes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| use catalase and peroxidase to decompose H2O2 making it water or using it to oxidize other organic compds |
|
|
Term
| how are peroxisomes made? |
|
Definition
| peroxisomal prots made on free polysomes (ribos) that have a peroxisomal targeting signal and then they are imported into organelles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| CAC, fatty acid beta oxidation, ETC and oxidative phosphorylation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shelf like crisae are called? where are they found? |
|
Definition
| tubulovesicular, steroid secreting cells |
|
|
Term
| shelf like crisae are called? where are they found? |
|
Definition
| tubulovesicular, steroid secreting cells |
|
|
Term
| how doe prots made on free ribos know they are going to mito? |
|
Definition
| they have a 20-80 aa mito signal pep at amino terminus |
|
|
Term
| 3 parts of cytoskeleton and their structure and main function |
|
Definition
1. microfilament: actin prots, work with actin binding prots to organize self
2. intermediate filaments: structure mostly, (types: keratin in epithelial cells, vimentin related prots, neurofilaments, lamins of nuclear lamina)
3. microtubules: dimers of tubulin organized by microtubule organizing centers
2. intermediate filaments |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokeratins, tonofilaments, tonofibrils, soft keratins, hard keratins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytokeratins, tonofilaments, tonofibrils, soft keratins, hard keratins |
|
|
Term
| list of vimentin related prots |
|
Definition
| desmin, glial fibrillary acidic prot GFAP |
|
|
Term
| how are lamins built and broken in mitosis? |
|
Definition
| phosphorylation disassembles them by making them soluble, dephosphorylation puts em back together after cell division |
|
|
Term
| what major process are microtubules used for? describe their role and components of their organizing center/ |
|
Definition
| mitosis. during interphase microtubes are organized around microsomal organisin centers called centrosomes. centrosomes have two centrioles with pericentriolar material. each centriole has 9 sets of triplet microtubes. the 2 centrioles are perp to each other. |
|
|
Term
| inclusions and def of each, plus where they are found |
|
Definition
glycogen: storage form of glucosefound in hepatocytes and cardiac muscle cells
lipid droplets: storage forms of triglycerides found in steroid secreting cells
pigments: in long lived cells like nuerons
and crystals: seen in leydig cells |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-chromatin condenses into sister chromatids
-nucleolus disassembles
-centrioles duplicate and move to make mitotic spindle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-nuc envelope broken
-microtubes attach to kinetochores of chromes
-chromes become arranged at right angles to mitotic spindles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| chromosomes lined up at metaphase plate and held by kinetochore microtubules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sister chromatids separate and migrate towards opposite poles and cleavage furrow begins to develop |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sister chromatids separate and migrate towards opposite poles and cleavage furrow begins to develop |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
kinetochore microtubes dissassemble
nuc mem reforms
chromes begin to decondense
nuclei begin to reform |
|
|
Term
| two methods of cell death |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ex of when necrosis may occur |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the characteristics of necrosis? |
|
Definition
| pm damage, cell swelling and lysis |
|
|
Term
| what natural response causes necrosis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the histo features of necrosis? |
|
Definition
pyknosis: condensation of chromatin and shrinking nuc
karyorrhexis: breaking of nuc
karyolysis: dissolution of nuc |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| DNA fragments, nuc breaks apart into parts, pm blebs (gets bubbles) then the cell is phagocytosed OR first the cell breaks into several vesicles called apoptotic bodies which get phagocytosed |
|
|
Term
| what does an apoptotic cell look like? |
|
Definition
| round with condensed chromatin and pyknotic nucleus (shrunk) |
|
|
Term
| what does hematoxylin have the potential to stain very very dark blue? why? |
|
Definition
| cartilage. b/c it has a lot of glycosamino glycans in it. |
|
|
Term
| what heavy metal is used in TEM |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what makes up glycocalyx? |
|
Definition
| glycoproteins and glycolipids |
|
|
Term
| in freeze fracture, what do integral mem prots look like? |
|
Definition
| intramembranous particles |
|
|
Term
| what lines the nuc envelope on the inside? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the nuclear lamina made of? |
|
Definition
|
|
