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| two most common elements in the earth's core |
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| how deep is the mantle under State College |
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| rates of sea-floor spreading at mid-ocean ridge |
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| A mid-plate mantle thermal anomaly that causes volcanism |
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| A thick pile of sediment shed off a volcanic arc and deposited next to the trench |
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| deepest places in the ocean basins |
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| From dry melting of peridotite in the upper mantle |
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| The arm of a triple junction in which spreading ceases |
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| most common minerals in crustal rocks |
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| typical temperature of erupting basalt |
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| A vertical sheet-like igneous intrusion |
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| A coarse-grained acidic (high in silica) rock |
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| typical geothermal gradient in the crust and upper mantle |
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Definition
| A rock made of material blown out of a volcano |
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| where does evaporite form |
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Definition
| In highly saline water bodies |
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| environment where the poorest sorted sediment is found |
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| indicative of high energy deposition |
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| when most deadly eruptions occur |
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| When the magma system empties |
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| How were most people killed during the AD79 eruption of Vesuvius |
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| last stage of global conveyor belt |
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| coldest deep water in the ocean found here |
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Definition
| off the coast of antarctica |
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Definition
| Offshore winds blowing surface water offshore |
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| As sea level rises, which way do barrier islands migrate over time |
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| results from rising sea level |
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| A channel divided by multiple gravel bars |
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| may be used to estimate 100 year flood level |
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| River water enters the ocean, slows down and deposits load |
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| The boundary between the undersaturated and saturated zones |
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| A natural spring that flows vertically upward |
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| Imperceptibly slow down slope movement of material |
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Definition
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| correct order of evolution |
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Definition
| FISH, AMPHIBIANS, REPTILES, BIRDS |
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| Where was the massive volcanic eruption that likely triggered the P/T extinctions |
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| The tilt of Earth’s axis with respect to the orbital plane |
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| glacier accounts for most of the ice on Earth |
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| Material deposited under and in front of a glacier |
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| Which isotope is concentrated into plants via photosynthesis |
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Definition
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| Which isotope is concentrated in ice via evaporation |
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Definition
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| evidence for warming in the Paleocene-Eocene thermal maximum (PETM; 55 Ma) |
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| groups of animals appeared during the PETM |
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| marine group suffered major extinctions during the PETM |
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| particularly sensitive to melting |
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| Approximately how much will global sea level rise if all of the ice on Antarctica were to melt |
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Definition
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| Approximately how much will global sea level rise if all of the ice on Greenland were to melt |
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| informal name of the temperature curve for the last 1000 years |
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| A supercontinent that existed about 250 million years ago |
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| origin of the Earth’s magnetic field |
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Definition
| Motions of fluid iron in the outer core |
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Definition
| The partially molten layer comprising the upper mantle between 100 and 350 km depth |
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| thickness of the crust under the Himalayas |
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Definition
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Definition
| Places where two plates move towards one another |
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| associated with subduction zones |
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Definition
| Basins that lie between island arcs and the continent |
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Definition
| Three-armed rift systems formed in the early stages of rifting |
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Definition
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| How did the Himalayan Mountains form |
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Definition
| Collision of India and Eurasia |
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Definition
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| How is granite generated most commonly |
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Definition
| Partial melting of continental crust |
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| What minerals are typically found in a granite |
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Definition
| Quartz, mica, K-feldspar and amphibole |
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Definition
| large phenocrysts in a fine-grained groundmass |
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Definition
| a large body made of plutonic igneous rock |
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Definition
| A biogenic rock made up of CaCO3 fossils |
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| Where do turbidity currents occur |
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Definition
| Down the continental slope |
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Definition
| a sedimentary rock formed of salts evaporated from seawater |
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| Typically how long does a typical metamorphic rock take to form |
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Definition
| Thousands to millions of years |
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Definition
| A broad, gently-sloped volcano built of basalt |
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Definition
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| How were most people killed after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa |
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Definition
| A hot spring from groundwater heated by hot rock |
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| can be used to predict volcanic eruptions |
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| How fast does a tsunami travel? |
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Definition
| The old, cold part of continents |
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| Ruptures during deformation |
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Definition
| Use of fossils to correlate rocks |
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Definition
| Downward and outward movement of material |
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Definition
| Old floodplains elevated when the river cuts down to a new level |
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Definition
| When a river meander gets so tight, it cuts itself off |
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Definition
| A current that runs parallel to the coast |
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| Poorly sorted material deposited by glaciers |
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Definition
| A bowl-shaped depression in which a glacier originates |
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Definition
| A depression formed when a large piece of ice melts |
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Definition
| A long hill of till deposited in front of a glacier |
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| a measure of the ability to transmit fluids |
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| Body of permeable rock through which groundwater moves |
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| causes saltwater incursion |
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Definition
| Major overuse of aquifers in coastal cities |
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Definition
| Shape of the Earth’s orbit |
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Term
| What is the period of the precession cycle? |
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Definition
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| used to reconstruct ancient climates |
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Definition
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Term
| What was the likely trigger of the PETM? |
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Definition
| Dissociation of methane hydrate |
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Term
| How long would it take a surface wave to travel from San Francisco to State College |
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Definition
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Term
| What is the largest measured earthquake |
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Definition
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Definition
| Minute cracking of ground from increased strain |
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| produces marble during metamorphism |
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Definition
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Definition
| Rock formed by a mixture of melting and metamorphism |
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| why is apparent polar wander apparent |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the contiuous side of Bowen's reaction series |
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Definition
| Ca-rich to Na-rich plahioclase feldspar |
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| process that will never be involved in the formation of a clastic sedimentary rock |
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Definition
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| processes involved in formation of clastic sedimentary rock |
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Definition
| glacial transport, river transport, weathering, storms |
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| what represents the lowest energy out of conglomerate, mudstone, sandstone, or siltstone |
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Definition
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| will ice or wind produce the most well sorted sediment |
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Definition
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| processing during diagenesis |
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Definition
| compaction, oxidation of organic matter, dewatering, formation of cement |
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| what does the presence of varves tell you |
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Definition
| seasonal alternations in depostition in a lake |
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Term
| temperature divide between diagenesis and metamorphism |
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Definition
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Definition
| a wavy rock with prominent sheen produced by mica |
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| if we metamorphose mudstone and limestone at medium temperature and pressure, what would the resulting rocks be |
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Definition
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Term
| role of water in metamorphism |
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Definition
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Term
| role of water in metamorphism |
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Definition
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| what volcanic hazard would make you the most nervous |
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Definition
| an active volcano covered with large amounts of ice |
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Term
| why was the 1985 mexico city quake so destructive |
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Definition
| the city lies on ancient lake bed |
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Definition
| faults that do not intersect the earth's surface |
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| low velocity zone corresponds to |
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Definition
| the uppermost aesthenosphere |
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Definition
| a fault in which the hanging wall has moved upward |
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| where are reverse faults most likely to be forming today |
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Definition
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| which period came before the cretaceous |
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Definition
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Definition
| bombardment of N-14 by cosmic radiation |
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Term
| what was the imprtance of stromatolites in Earth's environmental evolution |
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Definition
| their proliferation led to an increase in atmospheric oxygen |
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Term
| why were extinction events important from an evolutionary point of view |
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Definition
| they opened up large numbers of niches that could be filled |
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Term
| what is an arguement for meteorite impact at the Permian-Triassic boundary extinctions |
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Definition
| tiny piece of meteorite found at the boundary |
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Term
| in what materials is Ir most enriched |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the cause of the gravity anomaly at Chicxulub |
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Definition
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Term
| what were involved in the cause of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary extinctions |
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Definition
| starvation, darkness, acid rain |
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Term
| where may ice shelves be located |
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Definition
| off the coast of antarctica |
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Term
| where would you expect to find a spring |
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Definition
| a hillside where limestone overlies mudstone |
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Term
| what is a hazard of over-use of an aquifer |
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Definition
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Term
| what formed last our of nova, nebula, or planets |
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Definition
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Term
| what is true about fluids emanating from black smokers |
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Definition
| they are very hot and metal rich |
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Term
| why do seismic waves slow down in the low velocity zone |
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Definition
| the material is partially molten |
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Term
| what might you conclude from a coal overlain by beach sand |
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Definition
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Term
| where would you most ecpect to find metamorphism occuring |
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Definition
| in active mountain building |
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Term
| most significant factor in causing fatalities during the Great Sumatra Quake |
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Definition
| the epicenter was under water |
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Term
| how long would it take a P wave to travel from Los Angeles to State College |
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Definition
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Term
| why is weathering relevant for modern global warming |
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Definition
| silicate weathering can reduce atmospheric CO2 |
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Term
| Morocco and Florida are at similar latitude and opposite sides of the north atlantic, which has warmer surface water |
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Definition
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Term
| was subaerial during the ice age |
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Definition
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| where would be the best place to drill a well |
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Definition
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Term
| what is a significant groundwater issue in miami |
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Definition
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Term
| why does fire increase the risk of mass wasting |
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Definition
| it removes plants that hold slopes together |
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Term
| what do fossils of the earliest cells look like |
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Definition
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Term
| when did the diversity of mammals increase most rapidly |
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Definition
| after the cretaceous/tertiary boundary |
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Term
| which gas was a likely killer at the permian/triassic boundary |
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Definition
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Term
| what ecosystems suffered the least extinctions at the cretaceous-tertiary boundary |
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Definition
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Term
| what is evidence that the asteroid trajectory was from S to N |
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Definition
| burnt plants in north america are evidence of a giant fireball |
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Term
| what is the diameter of the Chicxulub crater |
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Definition
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Term
| what would halt ice advance immediately |
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Definition
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Term
| under which conditions would glaciers surge |
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Definition
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Term
| which isotope is concentrated in ice via evaporation |
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Definition
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| what is the fundamental evidencefor the Snowball Earth |
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Definition
| glacial sediments depostited at low altitudes |
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Term
| what is the age of the Snowball Earth |
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Definition
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Term
| what is a factor for the intiation/occurrence of Snowball Earth |
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Definition
| clustering of continetns at low altitudes |
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Term
| what likely caused the warming that ended the snowball |
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Definition
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Term
| where did organisms survive the snowball |
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Definition
| at the base of thin ice or within the ice |
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Term
| what caused the cretaceous oceans to be prone to anoxia |
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Definition
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Term
| what was the most likely source of greenhouse gas for the PETM |
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Definition
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Term
| what is an integral part of predicting future climate |
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Definition
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Term
| which region of the US is subject to major drought in the next century with continued warming |
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Definition
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Term
| why is the ozone hole no longer growing |
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Definition
| countries have cut down on chloroflourocarbon emission |
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