Term
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Definition
| the study of the planet earth |
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Term
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Definition
| Georges Cuvier, development of earth as a series of sporadic, cataclysmic events |
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Term
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Definition
| James Hutton, "the present is the key to the past" |
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Term
| Q: According to the principle of uniformitarianism, ____? |
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Definition
| geologic processes we observe today have operated in the past |
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Term
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Definition
| explanation initially offered for a set of observations |
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Term
| when a hypothesis withstands many tests, it may be called a ____. |
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Definition
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Term
| a theory for which it seems there to be no sensible reasons to challenge is called a _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| Grand canyon took more than _____ million years to deposit its sequence of rocks. Rocks at the bottom are about _____ billion years old. |
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Definition
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Term
| Meteorite crater Arizona, formed in less than ______ about 50,000 years ago. |
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Definition
| 1 minute. (some geologic events are rapid) |
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Term
| Wegener proposed that all land was once united in one supercontinent called _____. This theory is known as _____. |
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Definition
| Pangaea, Continental Drift |
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Term
Harry Hess proposed thermal convection cells.
New crust is forming at ocean ridges (spreading centers)
Crust is recycled at deep sea trenches. |
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Definition
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Term
| ________ also confirms sea floor spreading. ocean basins are youngest at ocean ridges. (all less than 200 million years old) |
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Definition
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Term
| Earth's outer layer composed of large rigid plates that move with respect to one another. Theory known as ________. |
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Definition
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Term
| Rigid lithospheric plates 75 to 150 km thick move on ____ partially molten asthenosphere. |
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Definition
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Term
| 3 types of plate boundaries: |
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Definition
| divergent, convergent, transform |
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Term
| spreading ridges where new ocean lithosphere is forming. _____ boundary. provide example... early stage, later stage, final stage |
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Definition
| divergent, East Africa Rift-early stage, Red Sea-later stage, atlantic ocean-final stage |
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Term
| explain a divergent boundary. ocean lithosphere vs. asthenosphere |
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Definition
| as the ocean lithosphere moves away from the spreading ridge it cools, thickens, and sinks. (lithosphere is heavier than asthenosphere) |
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Term
| older lithosphere is recycled into the upper mantle. one plate descends beneath the other in a subduction zone. _____ boundary. |
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Definition
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Term
| subduction produces a dipping zone of earthquakes called a ______ zone. |
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Definition
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Term
| Oceanic plates converge, producing a _______ arc. often new lithosphere forms at a ______ basin, behind the volcanic arc. ____boundary. provide example. |
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Definition
| oceanic-oceanic boundaries. produce a volcanic island arc. forms at a back-arc basin. example: Japan, Philippines. |
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Term
| Oceanic plate is subducted under the continental plate. A _____ arc of andesitic _____ forms. ___ boundary. provide example. |
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Definition
| oceanic-continental boundaries. a volcanic arc of andesitic volcanoes forms. example: Andes Mountains |
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Term
| continental crust is too thick and buoyant to subduct, it just thickens. ______ boundary. examples. |
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Definition
| Continental-continental collision. examples: Himalayas and Tibetan plateau. India is colliding with Asia. Appalachians formed when N.America collided with Gondwana. |
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Term
| _____ boundary. Plates slide past each other. Lithosphere is not created or recycled. provide example. |
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Definition
| transform. example: San Andreas fault-California. |
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Term
| Plate motion: Can be measured at divergent boundaries by ______ on the seafloor. |
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Definition
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Term
| Motion can be measured at boundaries with ________. hint: satellite laser ranging, quasars radio, GPS |
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Definition
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Term
| Hot magma plumes fixed deep in the mantle rise to the surface to form volcanoes or flood basalts. ______. provide example. |
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Definition
| hot spots. hawaii= midplate hot spot. Iceland= hot spot at a spreading center. |
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Term
| driving mechanism for plate tectonics |
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Definition
thermal convection in mantle.
ridge-push= weight of ridge
slab-pull= weight of down-going slab |
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Term
| Where is new crust forming today? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where are the earth's plate recycling centers? |
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Definition
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Term
| Oceanic crust that records negative magnetic anomalies formed when the earth's magnetic field was ______. How often does this happen? |
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Definition
| reversed from what it is today. once every million years. (magnetic field is getting weaker) |
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Term
| Which of the following substances is not considered a mineral? coal, diamond, gypsum, rock salt |
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Definition
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Term
4 characteristics of a mineral.
1. natural or unnatural?
2. structure?
3. organic or inorganic?
4. composition? |
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Definition
naturally occurring substance.
solid, ordered crystalline structure.
inorganic.
specific chemical composition. |
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Term
| form of matter that cannot be broken down into simpler forms; made of atoms. |
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Definition
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Term
| combinations of atoms of one or more elements in specific proportions. |
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Definition
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Term
| naturally occurring solids with specific chemical compositions and internal structures. |
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Definition
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Term
| naturally occurring aggregates or combinations of one or more minerals. |
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Definition
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Term
| smallest possible unit of an element that retains the physical and chemical properties of that element. |
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Definition
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Term
| at the center of an atom is a ______ that contains most of the mass of the atom. |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ are found surrounding the nucleus. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| negative charge, very little mass |
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Term
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Definition
| positive charge, mass 1800 times greater than electrons |
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Term
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Definition
| no electric charge, mass same as protons (very little) |
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Term
| # of ______ = # of _______ |
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Definition
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Term
| # of protons in the nucleus |
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Definition
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Term
| Atoms of the same element with different numbers of _____ are called _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| When an atom loses or gains an electron to or from another atom it is called an _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| positively charged ions (loss of electron) |
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Definition
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Term
| negatively charged ions (gain of electron) |
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Definition
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Term
| atoms of elements that make up compounds are held together by electrical forces of attraction between ____ and ____. |
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Definition
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Term
| attraction of ions of opposite charges |
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Definition
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Term
| sharing of electrons in outer shells |
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Definition
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Term
| sharing of an electron cloud around several nuclei |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| ionic bonding. 90% of minerals are ionic compounds |
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Term
| involves element that do not readily form ions, electrons shared between atoms, much MORE STABLE than ionic bonds |
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Definition
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Term
how do minerals form?
1. _____ from a magma
2. crystal growth in the ______ state.
3. _____ from solution |
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Definition
| crystallization, solid, precipitation |
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Term
| second most abundant group in the earth's crust |
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Definition
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Term
| major component of limestone |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the dominant type of bonding in minerals? |
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Definition
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Term
| isotopes of an element have different numbers of _____. |
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Definition
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Term
Physical properties of minerals.
resistance to scratching or abrasion |
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Definition
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Term
physical properties of minerals.
breaks along distinct planes |
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Definition
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Term
physical properties of minerals.
nature of broken surface |
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Definition
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Term
physical properties of minerals.
how surface reflects light |
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Definition
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Term
physical properties of minerals.
color |
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Definition
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Term
physical properties of minerals.
color in powdered form |
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Definition
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Term
physical properties of minerals.
3-dimensional form of crystals |
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Definition
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Term
varies inversely with bond strength
ionic bonds make this excellent.
# of planes
pattern |
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Definition
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Term
| Sodium has an atomic number of 11. How many electrons will the sodium ion Na+ have? |
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Definition
| 10. (+ means an electron was taken away) |
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Term
| Cleavage in a mineral is controlled by the _____. |
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Definition
| ionic arrangement of atoms within the material** |
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Term
| naturally occurring aggregates or combination of one or more minerals. provide examples. |
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Definition
| rocks. example: marble, granite, sandstone, limestone |
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Term
| relative proportions of constituent minerals |
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Definition
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Term
| describes the sizes and shapes of its mineral crystals and the way they are assembled |
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Definition
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Term
| all matters exist as either _____, ______, or ______. |
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Definition
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Term
variables of state.
temperature _______ with depth. |
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Definition
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Term
variables of state.
pressure _______ with depth. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| true or false: ultimately, any rock type can be turned into any other rock type via the processes of the rock cycle. |
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Definition
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Term
| which of the following igneous rocks crystallizes at the earth's surface? basalt, gabbro, granite, peridotite |
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Definition
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Term
| minerals form as a result of: |
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Definition
| precipitation from solution |
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Term
| the two characteristics used to describe a rock are: |
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Definition
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Term
igneous rocks:
-formed by the ______ of _______.
-originate deep in the _____ or ______ mantle.
-form must of the _____. |
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Definition
solidification of magma.
crust or upper mantle.
crust. |
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Term
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Definition
| when rocks melt (or partially melt) |
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Term
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Definition
| when the temperature exceeds the melting point of the rock or some minerals within the rock |
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Term
| partial melting occurs when some of the minerals in a rock melt at ____ temperatures than other minerals within the same rock. |
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Definition
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Term
| a temperature of about _____ degrees Celsius is required for partial melting of crustal rocks |
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Definition
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Term
| a depth of at least ____ km is required for these temperatures to occur. |
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Definition
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Term
| factors affecting melting of minerals and rocks: (3) |
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Definition
| pressure, water content, rock composition |
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Term
| increased ____ raises melting points |
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Definition
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Term
| increased _______ lowers melting points |
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Definition
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Term
| ____minerals melt at lower temperatures than _____ minerals. |
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Definition
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Term
| a rising blob of magma that pushes aside crustal rocks as it rises through the crust. |
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Definition
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Term
| describe the formation of magma chambers |
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Definition
| partial melting>>less dense magma>>magma rises>>magma pools in magma chamber |
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Term
| partial melting of upper mantle. provide example. |
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Definition
| mafic magmas. example: divergent spreading centers |
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Term
| partial melting of sedimentary rocks and mafic lithosphere. provide example. |
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Definition
| intermediate magmas. example: subduction zones. |
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Term
| partial melting of continental crustal rocks |
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Definition
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Term
| where would you expect to find the largest crystals in a lava flow? |
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Definition
| in the center of the flow |
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Term
| why are there so many types of igneous rocks? |
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Definition
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Term
| process by which rocks of various compositions can arise from a uniform parent magma, occurs b/c different minerals crystallize at different temperatures. |
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Definition
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Term
| process by which crystals forming in a cooling magma are segregated from the remaining magma. first minerals to crystallize from a cooling magma are last to melt. Basaltic magmas will gradually cool and differentiate into a more felsic melt. |
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Definition
| fractional crystallization |
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Term
| mixing of two magmas produces ___ . |
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Definition
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Term
forms of magmatic intrusions.
Plutons: _____ intrusions (batholiths, stocks)
____ intrusions (sills, dikes, veins) |
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Definition
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Term
| large igneous bodies that form at depth in the earth's crust |
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Definition
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Term
| andesite is an example of a(n) ____ igneous rock. |
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Definition
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Term
| experimental sequence of crystallization of minerals from a gradually cooling mafic (basaltic) magma. |
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Definition
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Term
| what is molten rock beneath the earths surface called? |
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Definition
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Term
| process by which magma rises through the crust, emerges onto the surface as lava, and cools into hard volcanic rock forming a volcano |
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Definition
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Term
| low-viscosity mafic lavas, typically erupted at 1000 degrees celsius to 1200 degrees celsius cool to form ____. |
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Definition
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Term
| high-viscosity felsic lavas, typically erupted at 800 degrees celsius to 1200 degrees celsius; cool to form _____. |
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Definition
| Rhyolite (rhyolitic lavas) |
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Term
| intermediate in composition and viscosity between mafic and felsic magmas; cool to form ______. |
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Definition
| andesite (andesitic lavas) |
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Term
| thick, widespread accumulations of basalt, typically fed by fissures. provide example. |
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Definition
| flood basalts. example: Columbia Plateau in Washington and Oregon |
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Term
| very low viscosity basaltic lava characterized by a ropy texture |
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Definition
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Term
| relatively low viscosity basaltic lava characterized by a jagged, blocky texture |
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Definition
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Term
| a basaltic lava extruded beneath the water, with a glassy texture |
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Definition
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Term
| trapped gases form bubbles |
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Definition
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Term
| when lava rises, the pressure _____, and the gas escapes creating gas _____, giving the cooled lava a vesicular texture. |
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Definition
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Term
| what is the name for a basaltic lava flow that has a ropy, folded surface? |
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Definition
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Term
| fragmentary volcanic rocks ejected high into the air during violent eruptions. |
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Definition
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Term
| low viscosity, low volatiles, and a large volume produces what? |
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Definition
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Term
| a volcanic eruption originating along an elongate fissure rather than a central vent. provide example. |
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Definition
| fissure eruptions. example: Laki Fissure (Iceland), resulted in largest lava flow in recorded history |
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Term
| formed by the sudden mixing of large volumes of pyroclasts with water (heavy rain, draining of crater lake, melting of glacier) |
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Definition
| Lahars (volcanic mudflows). can kill LARGE amounts of people |
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Term
| circulation of water through hot volcanic rocks and magma |
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Definition
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Term
| volcanic vents emitting gases, some charged with dissolved minerals |
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Definition
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Term
| heated hydrothermal waters under pressure, that intermittently erupt |
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Definition
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Term
| fumaroles and geysers provide the source for ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| single huge eruptions. provide example. |
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Definition
| supervolcanoes. example: krakatau, indonesia. |
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Term
| more than ____ active volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
| ___% of the world's population lives near active volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
| at what boundary within the earth do we believe that mantle plumes (hot spots) originate? |
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Definition
| mantle-outer core boundary |
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Term
| what is molten rock beneath the earths surface called? |
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Definition
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Term
| process by which magma rises through the crust, emerges onto the surface as lava, and cools into hard volcanic rock forming a volcano |
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Definition
|
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Term
| low-viscosity mafic lavas, typically erupted at 1000 degrees celsius to 1200 degrees celsius cool to form ____. |
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Definition
|
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Term
| high-viscosity felsic lavas, typically erupted at 800 degrees celsius to 1200 degrees celsius; cool to form _____. |
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Definition
| Rhyolite (rhyolitic lavas) |
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Term
| intermediate in composition and viscosity between mafic and felsic magmas; cool to form ______. |
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Definition
| andesite (andesitic lavas) |
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Term
| thick, widespread accumulations of basalt, typically fed by fissures. provide example. |
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Definition
| flood basalts. example: Columbia Plateau in Washington and Oregon |
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Term
| very low viscosity basaltic lava characterized by a ropy texture |
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Definition
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Term
| relatively low viscosity basaltic lava characterized by a jagged, blocky texture |
|
Definition
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Term
| a basaltic lava extruded beneath the water, with a glassy texture |
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Definition
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Term
| trapped gases form bubbles |
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Definition
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Term
| when lava rises, the pressure _____, and the gas escapes creating gas _____, giving the cooled lava a vesicular texture. |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| what is the name for a basaltic lava flow that has a ropy, folded surface? |
|
Definition
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Term
| fragmentary volcanic rocks ejected high into the air during violent eruptions. |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| low viscosity, low volatiles, and a large volume produces what? |
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Definition
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Term
| a volcanic eruption originating along an elongate fissure rather than a central vent. provide example. |
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Definition
| fissure eruptions. example: Laki Fissure (Iceland), resulted in largest lava flow in recorded history |
|
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Term
| formed by the sudden mixing of large volumes of pyroclasts with water (heavy rain, draining of crater lake, melting of glacier) |
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Definition
| Lahars (volcanic mudflows). can kill LARGE amounts of people |
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Term
| circulation of water through hot volcanic rocks and magma |
|
Definition
|
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Term
| volcanic vents emitting gases, some charged with dissolved minerals |
|
Definition
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Term
| heated hydrothermal waters under pressure, that intermittently erupt |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| fumaroles and geysers provide the source for ______. |
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Definition
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Term
| single huge eruptions. provide example. |
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Definition
| supervolcanoes. example: krakatau, indonesia. |
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Term
| more than ____ active volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
| ___% of the world's population lives near active volcanoes |
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Definition
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Term
| at what boundary within the earth do we believe that mantle plumes (hot spots) originate? |
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Definition
| mantle-outer core boundary |
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Term
| which of the following igneous rocks has the lowest silica content? |
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Definition
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Term
| what type of rock makes up most of the hawaiian islands? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| weathering breaks down rocks, erosion carries particles away, deposition (particles settle or precipitate) |
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Term
| transported rock fragments from rock weathering |
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Definition
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Term
| precipitated from water by chemical reactions |
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Definition
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Term
| same as chemical plus biological material |
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Definition
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Term
| variation in the range of gain sizes in a rock or sediment |
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Definition
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Term
| physical effects of transport on the sediments (2) |
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Definition
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Term
| through lithification- _____ reduces pore space. |
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Definition
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Term
| chemical precipitation of mineral material between gains binds sediment into hard rock |
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Definition
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Term
| pressure and temperature increase with burial |
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Definition
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Term
| organic matter becomes oil, gas, and coal with ____, _____, and ____. |
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Definition
| time, pressure, and heat. |
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Term
| what type of sediments are accumulations of solid fragments produced by weathering? |
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Definition
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Term
| sediments tend to accumulate in ______ in the earth's crust formed by subsidence. |
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Definition
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Term
| types of sedimentary environments (3) |
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Definition
| continental, shoreline, marine |
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Term
| bedding, layering controlled by particle size and types of particles |
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Definition
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Term
| sedimentar basins are formed by a process called _______. |
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Definition
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Term
| what is one of the main processes that drives plate tectonics? |
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Definition
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Term
| the presence of water will ______ the melting temperature of a rock. |
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Definition
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Term
| extrusive rocks cool more ______ than intrusive rocks. |
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Definition
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Term
| intrusive igneous rocks form deep in the _____ or _______ mantle. |
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Definition
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Term
| intrusive and extrusive rocks have ______ range of chemical compositions. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| result from the consolidation of loose sediment derived from previously existing rocks |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the three main types of sediment are: |
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Definition
| clastic, chemical, biochemical (organic) |
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Term
which tectonic setting will be coolest at 30km depth?
-regions of continental extension
-stable continental lithosphere
-volcanic arcs
-all 3 will be the same |
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Definition
| stable continental lithosphere |
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Term
| change affecte by pressure, heat, and water that results in a more compact and more highly crystalline condition |
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Definition
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Term
| metamorphic rock that has undergone changes in ____, ____, and chemical composition in the ____ state. |
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Definition
| texture, mineralogical composition, solid state. |
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Term
| main factors driving metamorphism (3) |
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Definition
| internal heat of the earth, earth's pressure, earth's fluids. |
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Term
| how do rocks metamorphose? |
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Definition
| through partial or complete recrystallization of minerals in the rocks over long periods of time. (remain in solid state) |
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Term
| greater pressure tends to ____ the space available for mineral growth; _____. |
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Definition
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Term
| _____ pressure can come from any directed stress (burial, collision, etc). _____ pressure. |
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Definition
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Term
| stress causes preferred orientation of minerals |
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Definition
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Term
| ____ greatly affects a rock's mineralogy and texture. _____ mobility of elements. (increases or decreases?) |
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Definition
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Term
| measure of variation of temperature with depth |
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Definition
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|
Term
____ act as a catalyst during metamorphism.
Aid the exchange of ions between growing crystals. |
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Definition
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Term
| change in a rock's bulk composition by fluid transport of chemical substances in or out of a rock |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| intensity of metamorphism |
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Definition
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|
Term
| amount of change during metamorphism depends on (3) |
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Definition
| grade, duration, composition of rock |
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Term
| directed stress will orient minerals in two ways: |
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Definition
| lineation, foliation (set of flat or wavy parallel planes produced by deformation) |
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Term
| metamorphic rocks result from the recrystallization of existing rocks while they are still in a solid state. |
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Definition
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Term
| most minerals are stable over a relatively _____ range of pressure and temperature |
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Definition
|
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Term
| given set of pressure and temperature conditions |
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Definition
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Term
| minerals in a rock can be clues to the ____ and ____ history of the rock. |
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Definition
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Term
| subducted lighter metamorphic rocks are driven upward by ____ relative to the surrounding crust. process? |
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Definition
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Term
| ______ are often found near a suture, remnants of metamorphosed oceanic crust. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| which of the following rocks represents the highest metamorphic grade? |
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Definition
| gneiss (highest to lowest: gneiss>schist>phyllite>slate) |
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Term
| the parent rock of a quartzite is ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| which kind of sediment accumulates where transport currents are strong? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| the atomic mass of an element is equal to the number of ______. |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| what types of lavas are erupted at mid-ocean ridges? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Hawaiian volcanoes are located at a _____. |
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Definition
| NOT located at a plate boundary |
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|
Term
| which mountain chain was the result of a continental collision during the assembly of the supercontinent Pangaea? |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| each element has a unique number of ____. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| Which mountain range formed as a result of ocean-continent convergence? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| which mineral is commonly used to determine a metamorphic P-T path? |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| a major difference between geologists and most other scientists is their concept of ____. |
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Definition
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Term
| a "long" time may not be important unless it is greater than _____ years. |
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Definition
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|
Term
| the study of time in relation to the earth |
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Definition
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|
Term
| how old a rock is compared to surrounding rocks |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| actual number of years since the rock was formed |
|
Definition
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|
Term
| in a sequence of undisturbed layered rocks, the oldest rocks are on the bottom |
|
Definition
| principle of superposition (steno's laws) |
|
|
Term
| layered strata are deposited horizontally or nearly horizontally |
|
Definition
| principle of original horizontality. |
|
|
Term
means "something dug up".
consists of the remains of ancient organisms, or other evidence of their existence. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| study of life in the past based on the fossil remains of plants and animals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fossils that are preserved in sedimentary rocks are used to determine (2) |
|
Definition
| relative age and the environment of deposition |
|
|
Term
| no single area records a complete record of earth history |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sc geologist, _____ _______, was one of the first to correlate sedimentary beds regionally using ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
surfaces where erosion has removed rock layers.
"missing time" |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of unconformities (3) |
|
Definition
| nonconformity, angular, disconformity |
|
|
Term
| sedimentary layers deposited on older igneous and metamorphic rocks |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| younger sedimentary layers deposited on older, tilted sedimentary rocks |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| younger sedimentary layers deposited on older, horizontal sedimentary layers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| geometry of rock bodies and their relationship with adjacent bodies, allows geologists to place rock units in relative chronological order |
|
Definition
| cross-cutting relationships |
|
|
Term
| principle of original horizontality: |
|
Definition
| sediments are deposited as horizontal layers |
|
|
Term
| divisions in the worldwide stratigraphic column based on variations in preserved fossils |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| radioactive elements (parents) decay to ____, non-radioactive elements (______). |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if we know the rate of decay and the amount present of parent and daughter we can calculate ______. |
|
Definition
| how long this reaction has been occurring |
|
|
Term
| the _______ of a radioactive isotope is defined as the time required for half of it to decay to the daughter product |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the half-life is ____ and does not ____ with time, temperature, pressure, etc. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| precision of dating techniques _______ with increasing geologic time. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the study of the layers in sedimentary rock is known as _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the principle of superposition states that __________. |
|
Definition
| undisturbed sedimentary layers get progressively younger from bottom to top. |
|
|
Term
deformation, deform=
stress= |
|
Definition
deform=change volume or shape of rock by
stress= force applied to rock |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| angle of steepest descent of the bed from the horizontal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| at right angles to the dip direction |
|
|
Term
stress:
squeezed=
pull apart=
sideways slip on parallel planes= |
|
Definition
compressional
tensional
shear |
|
|
Term
| any change in original shape or size of an object in response to stress acting on the object. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| temporary change in shape or size of a body that is recovered when the stress is removed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| permanent change in shape or size of a body that is not recovered when the stress is removed |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the body undergoes little change under the stress, until it breaks suddenly (earthquakes) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ability of an object to resist deformation, compressive or tensile |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| folds caused by _______- permanent, plastic deformation. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fractures with movement along fracture (fault plane) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| compression, hanging wall up |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| extension, hanging wall down |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| strike-slip. example: san andreas fault |
|
|
Term
| an up-arched fold with the oldest strata in the middle is: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the dip of a layer in a geologic formation can very between ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ floats on a viscous layer below the continents, the ____, within the earth's mantle. |
|
Definition
| lithosphere, asthenosphere |
|
|
Term
| archean cratons form in ____ terrains and ____terrains. |
|
Definition
| granite-greenstone, high-grade metamorphic |
|
|
Term
stable platforms:
-______ covered with horizontal sedimentary rocks
-sandstones, limestones, and shales deposited in ancient ____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| magma transferred from mantle to continents at subduction zones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| buoyant fragments of crust attached to continents as the result of plate motions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
general term for mountain-building processes.
folding and thrusting of rock layers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| located at hot spots and plate boundaries |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| repeated opening and closing of ocean basins |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what mountain chain runs along the eastern margin of north america? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| continents are made up of |
|
Definition
ancient granitic cratons
island arcs accreted to the edges of the cratons
exotic terranes |
|
|
Term
| The Carolina Piedmont is made of: |
|
Definition
| island arc rocks accreted to North America |
|
|
Term
| vibrations of the earth caused by the sudden release of energy as rocks move along fractures or faults |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
theory? energy is stored in rocks as they bend.
when rock strength is exceeded, they break and snap back. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the amount of ground displacement in an earthquake |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the maximum amount of slip on a fault during an earthquake? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| fastest, compressional, like sound waves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shear waves, can not travel through liquids or gases |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| instrument that records and measures earthquake vibrations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| seismic waves from an earthquake move out ______ from the focus and arrive at distant seismographic station at different times |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| at least __ recording stations are necessary to determine the location of an epicenter |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which set of waves is most likely surface waves? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| measure of the damage done by an earthquake |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the amount of energy released by an earthquake |
|
Definition
| magnitude. amplitude of magnitude 6 wave is 10x larger than a magnitude 5. energy released by a magnitude 6 is 30x larger than magnitude 4 waves and 900x more powerful. |
|
|
Term
| the largest earthquakes occur at _____ boundaries |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structures built on _____ _______ suffer less damage. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the size of a magnitude 8 earthquake is how much larger than that of a magnitude 6 earthquake? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| earthquakes that originate at depths greater than 100km are associated with _____ plate boundaries. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structures built on what suffer the most damage in an earthquake? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| produce by the interaction of solar radiation and the earth's magnetic field |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does NOT hold up mountain belts? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is earth's magnetic field produced? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the S wave shadow zone is caused by the ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| continental crust beneath mountains can be up to ___ km thick |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which layer in the earth does not transmit S waves? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the world's largest earthquakes occur along ______. |
|
Definition
| megathrusts at subduction zones |
|
|
Term
| seismic tomography can detect relatively warm regions of the mantle because S waves |
|
Definition
| travel more slowly through these regions |
|
|
Term
| units a,b,c,d,e,and f are sedimentary rocks. unit g is granite. the horizontal line labeled x-x1 is a(n) ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Panama arc collided with S. America |
|
Definition
| separating the atlantic and pacific, forming a land bridge, uplifting the eastern cordillera of colombia |
|
|
Term
| there are many earthquakes in the northern andes because |
|
Definition
| the caribbean, nazca, and south america plates are converging and ocean crust is subducting beneath south america |
|
|
Term
| 5 main components of earth's climate system |
|
Definition
atmosphere
hydrosphere
cryosphere
biosphere
lithosphere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
troposphere
stratosphere
mesosphere
thermosphere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| solar energy passes through, some is trapped making earth's atmosphere 33 degrees celsius warmer than it would otherwise be |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what are the greenhouse gases? |
|
Definition
carbon dioxide 49%
methane 18%
CFC's 14%
nitrous oxides 6% |
|
|
Term
| where does CO2 come from? |
|
Definition
| burning of fossil fuels, land clearing, manufacturing, fuel wood |
|
|
Term
| describe the carbon cycle |
|
Definition
| humans add carbon to atmosphere, plants and air-sea gas exchange removes some of it, there is a net annual increase |
|
|
Term
| the earth's albedo is the fraction of _____. |
|
Definition
| solar energy reflected by the earth's surface |
|
|
Term
| what is the most abundant greenhouse gas in the earth's atmosphere? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what has most significantly changed the carbon cycle over the past 150 years? |
|
Definition
| burning of fossil fuels** |
|
|
Term
| distribution of water on earth |
|
Definition
fresh water 4%
salt water 95.96% |
|
|
Term
| how much of the land surface is covered by ice? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| moving body of ice that forms from accumulation and compaction of snow |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in order to form a glacier, need to have ____ snow fall during the winter than snow melt during the sumer |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ice is much ____ dense than most other rocks and it melts at a much ____ temperature. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| two main types of glaciers |
|
Definition
| valley (alpine) and continental |
|
|
Term
| form in the cold heights of the mountains, where snow accumulates usually in preexisting valleys, and they flow down the bedrock valleys. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| extremely slow moving, thick sheet of ice that covers a large part of a continent |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
glacier formation requires:
-_____ temps to keep snow on the ground
-_____ altitude
-_____ latitudes
-_____ amounts of snow |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| total amount of ice that a glacier loses each year |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
glacial budget depends on:
the rate of glacial _______ at the upper end of the glacier
the rate of glacial _______ at the lower end of the glacier |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| grooves created by rocks scratching against bedrock at the base of a glacier |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| striations are evidence of the direction of ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the most recent ice age ended _______ years ago |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what would cause sea level to rise? |
|
Definition
| melting of the greenland ice cap |
|
|
Term
| what is an extremely slow-moving sheet of ice that covers vast land areas? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| accumulation of rocky, sandy, and clayey material carried by the ice and deposited |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| after the oceans, what reservoir contains the most water? |
|
Definition
| glaciers and polar ice caps |
|
|
Term
| the strongest influence on local hydrology is the _____, which includes both ______ and _______. |
|
Definition
| climate. temperature and precipitation |
|
|
Term
| amount of water vapor in the air expressed as percentage of the total amount of water the air could hold at that temperature if it were saturated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| warm air can hold much _____ water vapor than cold air |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the sum of all rainwater that flows over the surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what powers the hydrologic cycle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| surface water enters the ground under the influence of _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a geologic unity capable of storing and transmitting water in sufficient quantities to supply wells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| stabilizes soil, returns water to atmosphere through transpiration. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| promotes run-off as surface water rather than infiltration |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| determines amount of water available for replenishing the groundwater system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| percentage of pore space relative to the total volume of soil, rock, or sediment. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| measure of the ability of a rock or sediment to transmit a fluid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| conditions for a good aquifer |
|
Definition
| good groundwater reservoir with both high porosity and high permeability |
|
|
Term
| permeable layer extends to the surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| permeable layer is overlain and underlain by less permeable layers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| infiltration of water, mostly from precipitation, into the earth's surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| flow of water from the subsurface to the surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a local depression in the water table, usually a result of water withdrawal |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which of the following unfractured rocks has the highest porosity? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sinkholes are a possible danger in regions underlain by what type of bedrock? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| "juvenile water" refers to water that ________. |
|
Definition
| was derived from the mantle. |
|
|
Term
| layers that store and transmit groundwater are called _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the down-slope movement of material by gravity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| world's largest earth dam in 1930 was |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the angle of repose (steepest angle from horizontal that a soil slope can maintain) is: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
any flowing body of water, large or small.
most important erosional force on earth |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| major branch of a large stream system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a measure of the maximum size particle a stream can transport |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a measure of the total volume of sediment a stream can transport |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the larger the volume of a flow, the _____ suspended load and bedload it can carry |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| suspended load includes all material ____. |
|
Definition
| temporarily or permanently suspended in the flow |
|
|
Term
| elongated ridges of sand that can be many meters high in large rivers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| volume of water that passes through a plane per unit of time |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a 100 year flood is one which occurs, on average, once every ____ years |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| recurrence interval of floods depends on (3) |
|
Definition
| climate, width of the floodplain, size of the channel |
|
|
Term
| the elevation at which a stream ends by entering a large standing body of water, such as a lake or ocean |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| stream cutting caused by uplift results in the formation of _____ ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which of the following particles is most easily eroded from the bed of a stream? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| a 10-year flood is a flood that: |
|
Definition
| occurs on an average of every 10 years |
|
|
Term
| which of the following terms measures the total sediment load carried by a stream? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| forms world's breadbaskets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| expansion of deserts at 70,000 km per year, starvation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sand blasting, wind erosion |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most erosion in deserts are from |
|
Definition
| running water. flash flooding. |
|
|
Term
| from what direction do the trade winds in the tropics blow? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| viking landers found ventifacts and desert pavement on Mars that indicated: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the velocity of a river multiplied by the cross-sectional area of the river channel yields the river's ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the volume of water flowing past a given point in a given time is called the ______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| global temperatures ____ and return to normal in about _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where does most volcanic activity on the seafloor take place? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of continental margins (2) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| deep sea drilling confirmed that the ocean floor was less than ____ million years old |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sea floor is youngest at _______. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _____ reflect radio waves off sea surface |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how deep is the deepest part of the ocean? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ____ erode and deposit fine-grained sediments on the continental slope and rise |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| flattest surface on earth |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
waves: highest part?
lowest part?
distance between successive crests?
vertical distance trough to crest? |
|
Definition
crest
trough
wavelength
height |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| distance the wind blows over water |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in shallow water, waves bend to more nearly parallel the shoreline |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| long, narrow islands of sand separated from the mainland by a lagoon or bay |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| beach continues to a point that projects into a bay |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sea level is rising worldwide _____ cm/100years |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hatteras Island, NC is moving landward about ____ meters per year |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if the wavelength is 100 feet, how deep would you have to dive to get completely below the action? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the entire amount of a material that may be available for use sometime in the future |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| known resources that can be recovered economically and legally today |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| resources that can be replenished over short time spans |
|
Definition
| renewable. solar, wind, geothermal |
|
|
Term
| resources that are created by processes that take long spans of time to form (thousands to millions of years) |
|
Definition
| nonrenewable resources. fossil fuels, nuclear energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| breakdown of organic matter into a liquid or gas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| petroleum and natural gas are considered ____ energy resources. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| large accumulations of plant material. |
|
|
Term
| which material is a fossil fuel? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
presently expanding universe
present background radiation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 basic forces separated: |
|
Definition
| gravity, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, weak nuclear force |
|
|
Term
| light formed from _____ and _____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 10 billion years, a rotating cloud of gas and dust collapsed into the solar system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| earthlike, inner, dense rocks and metals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| jupiter-like, giant outer planets |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| "shooting stars" enter atmosphere |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which planet has the largest volcano and the largest canyon in the solar system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the large outer planets are composed of: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the asteroid belt is located between the orbits of: |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where would you expect to find evaporite sediments in a desert environment? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| diamonds are high pressure carbon carried to the earth's surface in kimberlite pipes from a depth of ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| large, cone-shaped deposits of sediment at a mountain front are called ____. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the height of an ocean wave increases as ____. |
|
Definition
| the wind blows for longer times |
|
|
Term
| what causes most of the erosion in deserts? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in what type of rocks are you most likely to find oil, natural gas, and coal? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what term is used to indicate a geologic process powered by wind? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why does the Sahara desert of Africa exist? |
|
Definition
| it lies near 30 degrees N latitude |
|
|
Term
| as waves move shoreward, velocity and wavelength _____, and height _______. |
|
Definition
|
|
