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| a relatively permanent change in behavior, knowledge, capability, or attitude that is acquired through experience and cannot be attributed to illness, injury, or maturation |
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| a type of learning through which an organism learns to associate one stimulus with another |
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| any event or object in the enviornment to which an organism responds |
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| a stimulus that elicits a specific unconditioned response without prior learning |
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| a response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning |
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| the learned response that comes to be elicited by a conditioned stimulus as a result of its repeated pairing with an unconditioned stimulus |
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| a neutral stimulus that, after repeated pairing with and unconditioned stimulus, becomes associated with it and elicits a conditioned response |
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| higher order conditioning |
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| conditioning that occurs when conditioned stimuli are linked together to form a series of signals |
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| in classical conditioning, the weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response as a result of repeated presentation of the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus |
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| the reappearance of an extinguished response when an organism is exposed to the original conditioned stimulus following a rest period |
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| in classical conditioning, the tendency to make a conditioned response to a stimulus that is similar to the original conditioned stimulus. in operant conditioning, the tendency to make the learned response to a stimulus similar to that for which the response was originally reinforced |
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| behavior directed towards others based on gender, religion, race, or membership in a particular group. the learned ability to distinguish between similar stimuli so that the conditioned response occurs only to the original conditioned stimulus but not to similar stimuli |
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| one of Thorndike's laws of learning, which states that the consequence or effect of a response will determine whether the tendency to respond in the same way in the future will be strengthened or weakened |
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| a type of learning in which the consequences of behavior are manipulated so as to increase or decrease the frequency of an existing response or to shape an entirely new response |
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| a voluntary behavior that accidentally brings about a consequence |
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| anything that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that it will occur |
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| any event that follows a response and strengthens or increases the probability that the response will be repeated |
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| an operant conditioning technique that consists of gradually molding a desired behaviour by reinforcing any movement in the direction of the desired response, thereby gradually guiding the response toward the ultimate goal |
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| a soundproof chamber with a device for delivering food to an animal subject; used in operant conditioning experiments |
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| successive approximations |
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| a series of gradual steps, each of which is more similar to the final desired response |
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| a stimulus that signals whether a certain response of behavior is likely to be rewarded, punished, or ignored |
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| any pleasant or desirable consequence that follows a response and increases the probability that the response will be repeated |
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| the termination of an unpleasent condition after a response, which increases the probability that the response will be repeated |
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| a reinforcer that fulfills a basic physical need for survival and does not depend on learning |
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| a reinforcer that is acquired or learned through association with other reinforcers |
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| schedule of reinforcement |
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| a systematic process for administering reinforcement |
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| a schedule in which a reinforcer is given following a fixed number of correct, nonreinforced responses |
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| variable interval schedule |
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| a schedule in which a reinforcer is given after a varying number of nonreinforced responses, based on an average ratio |
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| the removal of a pleasant stimulus or the application of an unpleasant stimulus, thereby lowering the probability of a response |
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| a decrease in behavior that results from an added consequence |
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| a decrease in behavior that results from a removed consequence |
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| learning to avoid events or conditions associated with aversive consequences or phobias |
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| a passive resignation to aversive conditions that is learned through repeated exposure to inescapable or unavoidable aversive events |
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| the use of sensitive equipment to give people precise feedback about internal physiological processes so that they can learn, with practice, to exercise control over them |
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| a method of changing behavior through a systematic program based on the learning principles of classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or observational learning |
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| a program that motivates socially desirable behavior by reinforcing it with tokens that can be exchanged for desired items or privileges |
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| mental processes such as thinking, problem solving, remembering, and forming mental representaions |
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| the sudden realization of the relationship between elements in a problem situation, which makes the solution apparent |
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| learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and is not demonstrates until the organism is motivated to do so |
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| a mental representation of a spatial arrangement such as a maze |
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| (social-cognitive learning) learning by observing the behavior of others and the consequences of that behavior; learning by imitation |
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| the individual who demonstrates a behavior or whose behavior is imitated |
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| learning a new behavior from a model through the acquisition of new responses |
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| exhibiting behavior similar to that shown by a model in an unfamiliar situation |
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| suppressing a behavior because a model is punished for displaying the behavior |
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| displaying a previously suppressed behavior because a model does so without receiving punishment |
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| the study of how humans grow, develop, and change throughout the life span |
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| plans of action, based on previous experiences, to be used in similar circumstances |
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| the process by which new objects, events, experiences, or information is incorporated into existing schemes |
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| the process by which existing schemes are modified and new schemes are created to incorporate new objects, events, experiences, or information |
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| the realization that objects continue to exist, even when they can no longer be perceived |
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| the understanding that one thing --- an object, word, drawing --- can stand for another |
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| the concept that a given quantity of matter remains the same despite being rearranged or changed in appearance, as long as nothing is added or taken away |
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| the realization that any change in the shape, position, or order of matter can be reversed mentally |
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| hypothetico-deductive thinking |
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| the ability to base logical reasoning on a hypothetical premise |
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| a type of thought in which adolescents construct ideal solutions for problems |
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| a belief of adolescents that they are or will be the focus of attention in social situations and that others will be as critical or approving as they are of themselves |
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| an exaggerated sense of personal uniqueness and indestructibility, which may be the basis for adolescent risk taking |
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| zone of proximal development |
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| a range of cognitive tasks that a child cannot yet do but can learn to do through guidance of an older child or adult |
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| a type of instruction in which an adlt adjusts the amount of guidance provided to match a child's present level of ability |
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| Kohlberg's lowest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning is based on the physical consequences of an act; "right" is whatever avoids punishment or gains a reward |
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| Kohlberg's second level of moral development, in which right and wrong are based on internalized standards of others; "right" is whatever helps or is approved of by others, or whatever is consistent with the laws of society |
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| Kohlberg's highest level of moral development, in which moral reasoning involves weighing moral alternatives; 'right' is whatever furthers basic human rights |
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| psychosocial stages (def) |
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| erikson's eight developmental stages for the entire span of life; each is defined by a conflict that must be resolved satisfactorily for healthy personality development to occur |
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Definition
trust v. mistrust- birth to 1 yr
autonomy v. shame and doubt- 1 to 3 yrs
initiative v. guilt- 3 to 6 yrs
industry v. inferiority- 6 yrs to puberty
identity v. role confusion- adolescence
intimacy v. isolation- young adulthood
generativity v. stagnation- middle adulthood
ego integrity v. despair- late adulthood |
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| development from conception to birth |
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| cell that results from the union of a sperm and an ovum |
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| the developing human organism during the period of 3-8 weeks when the major systems, organs, and structures of the body develope |
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| the developing human organism during the period of 9 weeks until birth when rapid growth and further development of the structures, organs, and systems of the body occur |
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| harmful agents in the prenatal enviornment, which can have negative impact on prenatal development or even cause birth defects |
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| a period so important to development that a harmful environmental influence at the time can keep a bodily structure from developing normally or can impair later intellectual or social development |
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| a condition, caused by maternal alcohol intake during pregnancy, in which the baby is born with mental retardation, with a small head and facial, organ, and behavioral abnormalities |
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| a newborn infant up to 1 month old |
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| a baby weighing less that 5.5 pounds |
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| a infant born before the 37th week and weighing less than 5.5 pounds; premature infant |
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| built-in responses to certain stimuli that neonates need to ensure survival in their new world |
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| an apparatus used to test depth perception in infants |
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| changes that occur according to one's genetically determined biological timetable of development |
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| a person's behavioral style or characteristic way of responding to the environment |
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| the strong affectionate bond a child forms with the mother or primary caregiver |
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| the fear and distress shown by a toddler when the parent leaves, occurring from 8 to 24 months and reaching a peak between 12 and 18 months |
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| a fear of strangers common in infants at about 6 months and increasing in intensity until about 12 months, and then declining in the second year |
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| vocalization of the basic speech sounds, which begins between 4 and 6 months |
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| the act of using a word, on the basis of some shared feature, to apply a broader range of objects than is appropriate |
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| restricting the use of a word to only a few, rather than to all, members of a class of objects |
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| short sentences that follow a strict word order and contain only essential content words |
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| the act of inappropriately applying the grammatical rules for forming plurals and past tenses to irregular nouns and verbs |
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| the process of learning socially acceptable behaviors, attitudes, and values |
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| parents who make arbitrary rules, expect unquestioned obedience from their children, punish transgression, and value obedience to authority |
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| parents who set high but realistic standards, reason with the child, enforce limits, and encourage open communication and independence |
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| parents who make few rules or demands and allow children to make their own decisions and control their own behavior |
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| cultural expectations about the behaviors appropriate for each gender |
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| the developmental stage that begins at puberty and encompasses the period from the end of childhood to the beginning of adulthood |
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| a period of rapid physical growth and change that culminates sexual maturity |
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| secondary sex characteristics |
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| those physical characteristics that are not directly involved in reproduction but distinguish the mature male from the mature female |
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| the period from the late teen to early 20s when individuals explore options prior to commiting to adult roles |
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| crystallized intelligence |
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| aspects of intelligence involving verbal ability and accumulated knowledge, which tend to increase over the life span |
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| aspects of intelligence involving abstract reasoning and mental flxibility, which peak in the early 20s and decline slowly as people age |
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