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| the study of matter and its properties, the changes that matter undergoes, and the energy associated with those changes |
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| anything that has mass and volume |
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| the types and amounts of simpler substances that make something up |
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| characteristics that give each substance its unique identity |
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| characteristics a substance shows by itself, without changing into or interacting with another substance |
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occurs when a substance alters its physical properties not its composition
same substance before and after |
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| characteristics a substance shows as it changes into or interacts with another substance or substances |
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| chemical change is also called a |
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occurs when a substance or substances is converted into a differenet substance
different substance before and after |
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| conforms to the container's shape |
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| conforms to the container's shape |
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| gas does not have a surface |
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| in a solid, the particles lie |
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| next to each other in a regular, three- dimensional array |
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| in a liquid, the particles lie |
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| close together but move randomly around each other |
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| have large distances between them and move randomly throughout the container |
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| a physical change caused by eating can generally be |
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| composition ultimately depends on |
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| the makeup of substances at the atomic scale |
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| we study observable changes in matter in order to |
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| undertand their unobservable causes |
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| the total energy an object possesses is |
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| the sum of its potential energy and its kinetic energy |
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| is the energy due to the position of the object relative to other objects |
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| is the energy due to the motion of the object |
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| when energy is converted from one form to another, it is |
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| situations of lower energy are more |
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| situations of ____ energy are favored |
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| due to electrostatic forces |
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| opposite charges attract each other and like charges repel each other |
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| changes in matter are accompanied by |
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observation
hypothesis
experiment
model |
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| pieces of quantitative information |
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| when the same observation is made by many investigators in many situations with no clear exceptions |
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| observation that mass remains constant during chemical change |
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| credited with the law of mass conservation |
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| proposal made to explain an observation |
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| testable by experimentation |
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| quantities that can have more than one value |
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| measures the effect of one variable on another while keeping all other variables constant |
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| quantity of matter an object contains |
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| an object's quantity of matter cannot change |
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| weight is variable because |
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| it depends on the local gravitational field |
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| measure of how hot or cold one object is relative to another |
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| the energy that flows from the object with the higher temperature to the object with the lower temperature |
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| variables dependent on the amount of substance present |
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| independent of the amount of substance |
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| every measurement includes come |
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| all digits are significant except |
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| zeros use only to position the decimal point |
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| sig figs for multiplication and division |
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| fewest number of sig figs |
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| sig figs for addition and subtraction |
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| how close the measurement in a series are to each other |
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| how close the measurement is to the actual value |
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| precise measurements have low |
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| accurate measurements have low |
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| systematic errors and low random errors |
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| comparing the measuring device with a known standard |
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| how close the measurement in a series are to each other |
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| produces values that are either all higher or all lower than the actual value |
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| produces values that are higher and lower than the actual value |
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| precise measurements have _____ error |
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| accurate measurements have _____ error |
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| low systematic and low random error |
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| matter whose composition is fixed |
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| simplest kind of matter with unique physical and chemical properties |
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| independent structure of two or more atoms bound together |
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| consists of two or more different elements that are bound chemically |
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| elements are present in compounds in |
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| the properties of a compound are |
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| different from the properties of its component elements |
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| two or more substances that are physically intermingled |
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| the components of a mixture can |
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| vary in their parts by mass |
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| many of the properties of its components |
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| the total mass of substances does not change during the chemical reaction |
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| the law of definite composition |
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| no matter what its source, a particular compound is composed of the same elements in the same parts (fractions) by mass |
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| fraction by mass (mass fraction) |
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| the part of the compound's mass that each element contributes |
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| percent by mass (mass recent) |
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| is the fraction by mass expressed as a percent (multiplied by 100) |
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| mass of element in sample = |
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| (mass of compound in sample)x(mass of element in compound/mass of compound) |
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| law of multiple proportions |
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| if elements A and B react to form two compounds, the different masses of B that combine with a fixed mass of A can be expresses as a ratio of small whole numbers |
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| tiny indivisible particles of an element than cannot be created or destroyed |
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| postulates of the atomic theory |
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Definition
1) all matter consists of atoms
2) atoms of an element cannot be converted into atoms of another element
3) atoms of an element are identical in mass and other properties and are different from atoms of any other element
4) compounds result from the chemical combination of a specific ratio of atoms of different elements |
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| who discovered the atomic theory |
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| cathode rays were given their name because |
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| the rays originated at the negative electrode (cathode) and moved to the positive electrode (anode) |
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| mass/ charge ratio of an electron was discovered by |
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| charge of the electron was discovered by |
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| an atom is electronically |
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| the nucleus of an atom is |
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| the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the |
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| number of electrons surrounding the nucleus |
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| equal the number of protons in the nucleus of each of its atoms |
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| the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of each atom |
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| atomic symbol (element symbol) |
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| based on the English Latin, or Greek name, such as C for Carbon |
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| atomic number often written as a |
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| mass number often written as a |
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| mass number - atomic number |
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| all atoms of an element have the same _____, but not the same ______ |
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| atomic number, mass number |
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| are atoms in an element, that have different numbers of neutrons and therefore different mass number |
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| is 1/12 the mass of a carbon-12 atom |
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| the isotope makeup of an element is determined by |
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| a method for measuring the relative masses and abundances of atomic-scale particles and molecules, very precisely |
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| atomic mass (atomic weight) |
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| the average of the masses of its naturally occurring isotopes weighted according to their abundances |
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| who published the original periodic table of elements |
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| periodic table arranged according to |
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| increasing atomic numbers |
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| the eight A groups contain |
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| metals lie where on the periodic table |
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| in the lower left portion |
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| nonmetals lie where on the periodic table |
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| in the small upper right portion |
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| metalloids lie where on the periodic table |
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| similar chemical properties |
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| elements in a period have |
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| different chemical properties |
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| except hydrogen, alkali metals |
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| transferring electrons from one element to another to form a bond |
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| sharing electrons between two atoms of different elements to form a bond |
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| forces that hold atoms together in a compound |
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| ionic compounds are composed of |
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| charged particles that form when an atom gains or loses one or more electrons |
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| simplest type of ionic compound |
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| metal ion that loses one or more electrons and becomes a positively charged ion |
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| nonmetal gains one or more electrons and becomes a negatively charged ion |
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| cation or anion derived from a single atom |
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| the energy of attraction (or repulsion) between two particles is directly proportional to the product of the charges and inversely proportional to the distance between them |
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| energy = (charge 1 x charge 2)/ distance |
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| attract (or repel) each other more strongly than ions with lower charges |
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| attract (or repel) each other more strongly than larger ions, because their charges are closer together |
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| a pair of electrons mutually attracted by the two nuclei |
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| most covalent substances consist of |
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| polyatomic ions consist of |
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| two or more atoms bonded covalently and have a net positive or negative charge |
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| the type and number of each atom in the smallest unit of the substance |
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| the relative numbers of cations and anions in the compound |
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| suffix -ous for the ion with the |
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| suffix -ic for the ion with the |
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| binary covalent compound are typically formed by |
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| the combination of two nonmetals |
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| uses element symbols and numerical subscripts to give the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule of the compound |
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| shows the relative placement and connections of atoms in the molecule |
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| has one or more visible boundaries between the components; it is not uniform |
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| has no visible boundaries because the component are individual atoms, ions, or molecules; it is uniform |
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| another name for a homogeneous mixture |
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| mixtures differ from compounds in three different ways |
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1) proportions of the components can vary
2) individual properties of the components are observable
3) components can be separated by physical means |
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| the characteristics that give each substance its unique identity |
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| kinetic molecular theory of matter |
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| all matter consists of tiny particles, which are in constant motion |
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| observations, hypothesis, experiment, model |
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| when conducting an experiment always have a |
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| experimental value- accepted value |
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| (experimental value/ accepted value) x 100 |
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| (SQRT( sum of differences/ ( # or trials -1)) |
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'stinky elements'
sulfur, selenium |
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| full outer valence shell and don't form bonds |
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| # electrons = same # as protons |
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| divide each number of moles by the smallest number of moles calculated |
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| mass in grams of one mole of any element |
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| how many molecules in one mole of a substance |
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| Anything that has mass and volume |
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| Simpler substances that make up matter |
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| Type of matter that has a defined, fixed composition |
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| The characteristics that give each substance its unique identity. |
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| examples of physical changes |
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Definition
Making ice cubes
Boiling water
Dissolving sugar into water |
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| examples of chemical changes |
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Definition
2H2(gas) + O2(gas) ------> H2O
Burning wood |
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total disorder
much empty space
particles have complete freedom of motion
particles are far apart |
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disorder
particles are free to move relative to each other
particles are close together |
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ordered arrangement
particles are essentially in fixed positions
particles are close together |
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| qualitative and quantitative data |
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| A tentative explanation or prediction based on experimental observations |
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| clear set of steps that test the hypothesis. Consist of variables and controls |
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| formulating theories based on experiments. Can be used to make predictions about related phenomena |
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A concise verbal or mathematical statement of a behavior or a relation that is consistently observed in nature without contradiction
Allows scientists to make new predictions |
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Well-tested, unifying principle that explains a body of facts and the laws based on them
Sometimes used to imply a guess but to scientists, theories are based on reproducible evidence. |
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| the ratio of the mass of an object to its volume |
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| the simplest type of matter with unique physical and chemical properties |
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| matter whose composition is fixed |
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| independent structure consisting of two or more atoms chemically bound together |
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| composed of two or more different elements that are chemically bound together |
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| a group of two or more substances that are physically intermingled |
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| Extended 3-D network of an ionic solid |
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| The attraction of opposing forces and the repulsion of like forces. |
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| certain gases dissolve in water |
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| acids which contain oxygen |
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| The SI unit for measuring an amount of a substance |
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| The simplest, whole number ratio of atoms in a formula |
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| Compounds in which molecules of water are associated with the ions of the compounds |
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| Substances combined in the reaction, written to the left of the arrow. |
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| The substances produced in the reaction, written to the right of the arrow |
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| Physical states of the reactants and products are also included in the chemical equation |
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| Balancing Chemical Equations |
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Step 1: Write the correct formula for the reactants and products
Step 2: Balance each atom individually
Step 3: Verify that the number of atoms of each element is balanced |
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| Indicates the number of moles involved in the reaction |
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| Also known as the mole ratio. A ratio of the coefficients from two molecules in the balanced equation |
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| The reactant, that limits the amount of product produced. |
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| The maximum mass of a product that can be obtained from a chemical reaction |
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| The actual amount of a material obtained in a laboratory experiment |
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| (actual yield/ theoretical yield) x 100 |
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| Homogeneous mixture of two or more substances |
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| The medium in which another substances is dissolved |
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| The substance that is being dissolved |
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| Aqueous Solutions Reactions |
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| Many of these reactions are exchange reactions in which the ions of the reactants change partners. |
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| Compounds whose solutions conduct electricity |
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| All ionic compounds that are soluble in water are |
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| The amount of solute in moles per liter of solution |
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| (amount of solute (mols)/ volume of solution (liters)) |
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| the study of the quantitative aspects of formulas and reactions |
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| the amount of substance that contains the same number of entities as the number of atoms |
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| the mass per mole of its entities and has units of grams per mole |
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| how many molecules in a mole |
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| 6.022 x 10^23 molecules/ mole |
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| amount (mol) x (6.022 x 10^23) = number of atoms |
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| mass (g) to number of molecules |
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mass (g) / molar mass (M) = number moles
number moles x (6.022 x 10^23) = number of molecules |
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| mass of compound x (mass of element in 1 mol of compound/ mass of 1 mol of compound) |
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| empirical formula is derived from |
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| the lowest whole number of moles, and thus the relative number of atoms, of each element in the compound |
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| the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule |
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| the relative placement and connections of atoms in the molecule |
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| combustion analysis is used to |
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| measure the amounts of carbon and hydrogen in a combustible organic compound |
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