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| the scientific study of life |
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all the living and non-living components of particular area
living organisms: people, trees, moss, fish, grass, bacteria, fungus, etc.
non-living: soil, sunlight, wind, rain, water, etc. |
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| all the living components of a particular area; all the different species |
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| interacting group of individuals of the same species |
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| an individual living thing (not always clear) |
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| group of organs that function together to perform a vital bodily function |
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| a structure consisting of several tissues adapted as a group to perform a specific function |
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| a cooperative unit of many similar cells that perform a specific function (within a multicellular organism) |
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| the fundamental structural unit of Life; a basic unit of living matter separated from its environment by a plasma membrane |
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| two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds |
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| the smallest unit of matter that retains the properties of an element |
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| cell (either prokaryotic or eukaryotic) |
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| Water is a special liquid because... |
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| it is POLAR, forms H-bonds, is COHESIVE, a good temperature buffer, is less dense as a solid, and is a good SOLVENT. |
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| properties of a system different from its component parts |
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| “big” “complex”; cells with membrane-bound organelles; i.e. most multicellular organisms are eukaryotic. contains MEMBRANE BOUND organelles |
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“small” “simple” i.e. bacteria
no MEMBRANE BOUND organelles. |
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| Three SUB-ATOMIC PARTICLES |
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| Electron, Proton, Neutron |
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| The different kinds of ELEMENTS |
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| There are 92 naturally occurring elements. 25 of which are essential to life |
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H: hydrogen O: Oxygen N: Nitrogen C: Carbon = 96.3 wet weight %
Wants 1 e wants 2 e wants 3 e wants 4 e |
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| the tendency for atoms in molecules to have 8 e- in their (outermost) valence shell. |
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| atom or molecule with a net positive or negative charge (opposites attract and same signs repel) |
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| forms when two ions (atoms/molecules), and are head together by electrostatic forces |
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| Sharing of electrons; The number of covalent bonds an atom can form is equivalent to the number of additional electrons needed to fill it’s outer shell. |
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VERY diverse class of organic compound
• Mostly composed of hydrogen and carbon
• Make up membranes |
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| Very complex, often direct the chemistry in the cell (enzymes) |
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Sugars, made of C, H, and O
• range from small sugars to very large, long polymers of sugars linked together |
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The Blue Print for it all!
Information containing polymer
• Two major types: DNA and RNA |
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| two or more atoms held together by covalent bonds |
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| Basis for Organic Compounds |
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| lipids two main functions |
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1. make membranes
2. store energy – FAT |
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| have one end that is hydrophobic and the other that is hydrophilic |
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| most biological molecules; large molecule composed of smaller organic molecules linked together |
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| small organic molecule linked into a polymer |
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| removes a water molecule in the process of “gluing” monomers together |
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| adds a water molecule worth of atoms (2 Hydrogens and 1 Oxygen) in the process of breaking the polymer apart |
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• the monomer of proteins
• 20 common amino acids |
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| Links together Amino Acids, is formed by DEHYDRATION SYNTHESIS and broken by HYDROLYSIS |
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• Primary (1o) : amino acid sequence
• Secondary (2o) : coiling and microstructure
o Alpha-helix
o Beta-pleated sheet
o Random coil
• Tertiary (3o): the resulting 3D structure all the secondary elements folding up to maximize polar AA interaction with water and to hide hydrophobic AA from the water
• Quaternary (4o): some proteins are composed of more than one polypeptide, the interaction between these sub-units is quaternary structure |
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| Protein with sugars attached |
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| Lipid with sugars attached |
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| study of role of sugars at the molecular level |
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deoxyribonucleic acid.
A = adenine, T = thymine
C = cytosine, G = guanine |
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ribonucleic acid.
A = adenine, U = uracil
C = cytosine, G = guanine |
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• Have a plasma membrane
• Contain genetic material composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)
• Come from other cells |
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• Is a complex mixture of lipids and proteins
• Delineates the cell from its environment
• living “soup” inside the cell = CYTOPLASM
• Is an ACTIVE and SELECTIVE membrane. |
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| cell organelle built of RNA and protein, site of protein synthesis |
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| composed of peptidoglycan (sugar protein mix), like a cage around the cell to maintain its shape |
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| short projections that help the cell stick to things |
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| “propeller” that moves the cell through its environment |
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| Membrane Bound Organelles |
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| Nucleus, Endoplasmic reticulum (ER), Golgi Bodies (Apparatus), Lysosome, Vacuoles, Mitochondria, Plastids (plants) |
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| Non-membrane Cell Structures |
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| Ribosomes, Cell wall (plants), Cytoskeleton, Flagellum, Gap junctions, Plasmodesmata (plants) |
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| contains the genetic material within the NUCLEAR ENVELOPE |
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| the space inside double membranes |
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| ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (ROUGH) |
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| acts as a protein processing center |
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| ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SMOOTH) |
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| ER committed to chemistry |
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| docking station for proteins, further processing of glycoproteins |
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| membrane vesicle containing digestive enzymes, harsh conditions (often acidic), fuses with endocytic vesicles to break down ‘food’ |
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| plant cell, variety of vacuoles (name given to things that don’t have names) |
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| In all EUKARYOTIC cells, “power plants of the cell” i.e. produce energy, breakdown sugar to usable ATP |
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| most common type CHLOROPLAST, In green plants, “solar manufacturing plants of the cell” – convert light energy to ATP for making SUGAR |
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| skeleton of the cell – SUPPORT and ROADWAY around the cell |
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| THREE MAIN GROUPS OF CYTOSKELETAL ELEMENTS |
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| microfilaments (actin), intermediate filaments (provide elasticity), microtubules (tubulin, RR tacks of the cell) |
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| PLASMODESMATA (PLANT CELLS) |
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complex structure that is active and polices the movement of small and large molecules between plant cells
• creates a continuous network of cytoplasm throughout the plant called the SYMPLASM |
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| the movement of solutes from a region of HIGH solute concentration to region of LOW solute concentration |
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| The movement of water from a region of higher concentration (of water) across a semi-permeable membrane to a region of lower concentration (of water) |
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| solution has higher solute concentration than in the cell – cell shrinks |
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| solution has lower solute concentration than in the cell – cell bursts |
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| solution has the same solute concentration as the cell – no change |
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| stores energy in chemical bonds, unstable molecule – not good for long term storage, used to power the chemical reactions of life |
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(In PLANTS and ANIMALS)
• Cellular respiration: where you “burn” your food, Overall reaction: glucose + oxygen --> carbon dioxide + water + ATP |
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(ONLY in PLANTS)
• Where sunlight (radiant energy) is converted to chemical energy
• Overall reaction: light energy + carbon dioxide + water --> glucose + oxygen |
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= rearrangement of molecules
some reactions occur spontaneously, many reactions in life chemistry do not occur spontaneously |
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| vast majority are proteins, catalyze the chemical reactions of life |
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other molecules that bind to the enzyme and affect its activity
o vitamins, minerals |
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| complimentary base pairing |
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DNA: A-T & C-G
RNA: A-U & C-G
Also known as “Watson-Crick Base-pairing” held together by hydrogen bonds |
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| The idea that a proteins function is based on its shape. Change the shape of the protein = changing its function or causing it NOT to function. |
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| the “substrate” for an enzyme needs to fit very precisely into the “active site” of the enzyme for a reaction to be catalyzed |
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DNA --> RNA --> Protein --> Trait
The information in DNA must flow through transcription (DNA --> RNA) and translated (RNA --> protein) into proteins to do things! |
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Idea that changing the DNA changes the protein changes the traits of an organism. Biotech aims to do this in a directed and deliberate manner.
• Viruses (with their various life cycles and abilities to hijack cells) are a great tool in biotechnology |
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| involves the combination of genetic material from two individuals for the next generation. |
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| messenger RNA - “working copy” of DNA |
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| ribosomal RNA – acts as a structural component |
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| transfer RNA, plays a key role in translating the genetic code |
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A discrete unit of hereditary information
• the sequence of DNA that encodes for a single polypeptide |
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| three nucleotides encode for one amino acid; this is a “codon” |
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| the synthesis of RNA from a DNA template |
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| Three stages of transcripton |
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| Initiation, Elongation, and Termination |
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| regulates movement in and out of the nucleus |
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rewriting in a different language, from nucleotides to amino acids
• the synthesis of a polypeptide by a ribosome using the genetic information encoded in an mRNA molecule |
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| Necessary components for translation: |
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| Ribosomes (large and small subunit), tRNA (64 different tRNA), Amino acids, ATP – costs energy to build a protein |
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| Takes up most of the internal volume of a plant cell and is used for food and water storage |
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| four major macromolecules |
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| Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acid |
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| Simple test that can detect large amounts of lipids in a sample. |
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| Molecules which allow ions to cross cell membranes |
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| means to make MANY COPIES of something |
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| “genes in a box” i.e. cannot reproduce independent of a living cell |
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| TWO LIFE CYCLES OF VIRUSES |
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LYTIC CYCLE: Virus uses cell to reproduce immediately. Results in cell death as cell lyses releasing new viral particles
LYSOGENIC CYCLE: Viral DNA is incorporated into the genome of the host cell. As host cell divides, viral DNA is copied with it, resulting in viral DNA being passed on to all daughter cells.
Virus can switch to lytic cycle from lysogenic. Sometimes viral DNA never goes lytic and eventually becomes a permanent part of the host’s DNA |
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Use Reverse Transcriptase to convert RNA to DNA. Ex. HIV
RNA --> DNA --> RNA --> Protein --> Trait. |
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| the strategy to cure genetic diseases by changing the DNA of an individual. |
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