Term
| Marr's levels of analysis |
|
Definition
Level 1 = computation (why [problem])
Level 2 = algorithm (what [rules])
Level 3 = implementation (how [physical]) |
|
|
Term
| relationship from level 1 --> 2 & 2--> 3 for Marr's levels of analysis |
|
Definition
| 1 suggests 2 --> 2 predicts 3 |
|
|
Term
| relationship from level 3 --> 2 & 2 --> 1 for Marr's levels of analysis |
|
Definition
| 3 confirms 2 --> 2 explains 1 |
|
|
Term
| computational theory (Marr's levels) |
|
Definition
| what is the goal of the computation, why is it appropriate, & what is the logic of the strategy by which it can be carried out? |
|
|
Term
| representation & algorithm (Marr's levels) |
|
Definition
| how can this computational theory be implemented? in particular, what is the representation for the input & output, & what is the algorithm for the transformation? |
|
|
Term
| hardware implementation (Marr's levels) |
|
Definition
| how can the representation & algorithm be realized physically? |
|
|
Term
| which level of Marr's levels is described by this statement: motor & sensory information come into association cortices |
|
Definition
| algorithmic! (circuit is mostly the algorithmic level) |
|
|
Term
| computational level (Marr) of stress |
|
Definition
| it helps us address a stressor in our environment |
|
|
Term
| algorithmic (Marr) understanding of stress |
|
Definition
| what allows stress to happen |
|
|
Term
| implementation (Marr) analysis & understanding of stress |
|
Definition
| what does cortisol & what does adrenaline do? |
|
|
Term
| do we have many or a few association cortices? |
|
Definition
| several (most of the brain!) |
|
|
Term
| 2 things taken into account when deriving Brodmann areas |
|
Definition
1. physiological properties
2. functional properties |
|
|
Term
| practice about 100 years ago in which people felt that bumps on the head meant different things in terms of various conditions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| most of the somatosensory cortex is made up of _______ cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| thalamus --> input to cortical layer _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| other cortical areas & brainstem modulatory systems --> input to cortical layer ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| layer 2/3 --> output to _______ |
|
Definition
| other cortical areas (deeper layers like 5 or 6) & the opposite hemisphere |
|
|
Term
| layer 4 --> output to _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| layer 5 --> output to ______ |
|
Definition
| other cortical areas & deeper structures |
|
|
Term
| layer 6 --> output to _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how strict is the hierarchy of canonical neocortical circuitry? |
|
Definition
| much more loose than other parts of the brain |
|
|
Term
| how do we (experimenter) get signals from the different cortical layers? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if you sum up the various activity of the neurons that a given EEG electrode is recording from & it is synchronous, you will get a ______ read-out |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if you sum up the various activity of the neurons that a given EEG electrode is recording from & it is irregular, you will get a _____ read-out |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 things handled by the parietal association cortex |
|
Definition
1. attention
2. spatial awareness
3. certainty |
|
|
Term
experiment: monkey presses a response bar at certain times & the brain activity is recorded from parietal cortex
if the monkey is ignoring the target: ? |
|
Definition
| you don't see a ton of spiking |
|
|
Term
experiment: monkey presses a response bar at certain times & the brain activity is recorded from parietal cortex
if the monkey attends to the target: ? |
|
Definition
| you see much more spiking |
|
|
Term
experiment: monkey presses a response bar at certain times & the brain activity is recorded from parietal cortex
if you increase the amount of juice the monkey gets as a reward: ? |
|
Definition
| you will see an attention spike in the monkey (more motivated) & more neuronal firing |
|
|
Term
experiment: monkey presses a response bar at certain times & the brain activity is recorded from parietal cortex
if you give the monkey a clue about where to look for the next target: ? |
|
Definition
| you will also see an increase in neuronal firing |
|
|
Term
| why are we able to use many different model organisms to study sleep? |
|
Definition
| sleep is a brain state conserved across animals |
|
|
Term
| a form of electrophysiology where we measure changes in membrane potential by putting an electrode on top of the scalp |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| synchronized EEG activity is often referred to as _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 things usually included in definitions of sleep |
|
Definition
1. immobility or loss of consciousness
2. decreased response to stimuli
3. global changes in brain activity |
|
|
Term
| 2 possibilities for how the wakefulness nuclei are involved in promoting sleep |
|
Definition
1. you could inhibit these nuclei to induce sleep (default state: awake)
2. you could have these nuclei have a default state being sleep & therefore need high firing to wake you up |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. cholinergic nuclei
2. Raphe nuclei
3. tuberomammillary nucleus of hypothalamus
4. locus coeruleus |
|
|
Term
| we produce sleep by the regulation of ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| stimulating reticular activating system in cat --> ? (experiment where cat has electrode in this brain region) |
|
Definition
| makes it less synchronous/frequency goes up/wave amplitude goes down & wakes up the cat |
|
|
Term
| stimulating thalamus in cat --> ? (experiment where cat has electrode in this brain region) |
|
Definition
| makes it more synchronous/bigger amplitude wave forms/slow waves & puts cat to sleep |
|
|
Term
| how would you test the reticular activating system to show that it was being tonically inhibited to cause sleep? |
|
Definition
| if we inject a GABA antagonist while it was asleep & the animal wakes up |
|
|
Term
| Marr's 3 levels of analysis |
|
Definition
1 = computation --> why (problem)
2 = algorithm --> what (rules)
3 = implementation --> how (physical) |
|
|
Term
with sleep, we know the answer to the problem (sleep) BUT we don't know the question (what problem is sleep solving...why do we sleep?)
maybe the question for level 1 (Marr): ? |
|
Definition
| how do we maintain the health of the brain & encode long term memory? |
|
|
Term
| what did we learn from the Randy Gardner experiment? |
|
Definition
| he stayed awake for 11 days & quickly after losing sleep he lost the ability to focus his eyes, identify objects based on touch (high level perception!), moody (loss of regulation of emotion), uncoordinated (loss of regulation of motion), paranoid (cognitive deficits, imagining things that aren't there), hallucinations, etc. |
|
|
Term
| sleep is actually a ______ brain state! |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| each stage of sleep is denoted in EEG by _______ |
|
Definition
| specific type of brain wave |
|
|
Term
| describe the cyclical time progression through the different stages of sleep |
|
Definition
| quick progression from stage 1 --> 4, spend a long time in stage 4 --> work way back up through stages to REM --> go back down to stage 4 --> work back in a cycle, etc. |
|
|
Term
| frequency of waves associated with waking |
|
Definition
| beta (15 to 60 Hz, 30 uV amplitude) |
|
|
Term
| behavior associated with waking |
|
Definition
| moving around, doing stuff, generally aware |
|
|
Term
| waking is a period of high, if transient, ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| relatively high or low power of brain waves while you're awake? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frequency of waves associated with stage 1 sleep |
|
Definition
| theta waves (4 to 8 Hz, 50-100 uV amplitude) |
|
|
Term
| behavior associated with stage 1 sleep |
|
Definition
| light sleep, muscles relax/occasionally twitch |
|
|
Term
| are you easily woken from stage 1 sleep? |
|
Definition
| yes (low awareness though) |
|
|
Term
| sleep wave read-out associated with stage 2 sleep |
|
Definition
| sleep spindles (10 - 12 Hz, 50 - 150 uV amplitude) |
|
|
Term
| behavior associated with stage 2 sleep |
|
Definition
| eye movements stop, body temperature drops |
|
|
Term
| stage 2 sleep is associated with bursting behavior in _______ connections |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frequency waves associated with stage 3 & 4 sleep |
|
Definition
| delta waves (0.5 - 4 Hz, 100 - 150 uV amplitude) |
|
|
Term
| behavior associated with stage 3 & 4 sleep |
|
Definition
| deep sleep, breathing & heart rate slow to lowest point |
|
|
Term
| how does the duration of stage 3 & 4 sleep change throughout the sleep? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sleep wave read-out associated with REM sleep |
|
Definition
| waves similar to wakefulness, but also show "sawtooth" theta waves |
|
|
Term
| behavior associated with REM sleep |
|
Definition
| eyes move rapidly, breathing & heart rate increase, limbs paralyzed |
|
|
Term
| which sleep stage is most associated with dreaming? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does the duration of REM sleep change throughout the sleep? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| REM sleep shows increased _______ activity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| main hypothesis for why we need REM sleep |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is inactivated during REM sleep? |
|
Definition
| posterior cingulate cortex |
|
|
Term
| 2 regions activated during REM sleep |
|
Definition
1. limbic system
2. hippocampus |
|
|
Term
| 3 theories about what dreams are |
|
Definition
1. nothing (Hobson, 1998)
2. memory consolidation
3. emotional regulation |
|
|
Term
| 4 arguments for why sleep may be a homeostatic mechanism |
|
Definition
1. low frequency synchronous activity
2. stages 3 & 4 increase in duration
3. slow wave activity can be detected in tired, but awake, individuals
4. importance of general sleep |
|
|
Term
| 4 arguments for why sleep may be important for memory consolidation |
|
Definition
1. activity similar to waking activity during REM
2. activation of hippocampus during REM
3. rich sensory signaling during dreams in REM sleep
4. importance of specifically REM sleep |
|
|
Term
| 2 arguments for why sleep may be important for emotional regulation |
|
Definition
1. increases in limbic areas during REM sleep
2. importance of specifically REM sleep |
|
|
Term
| sleep is a series of brain states that occur in a cyclical pattern, characterized by _______ |
|
Definition
| specific frequencies of brainwaves |
|
|
Term
| is sleep a necessary function? |
|
Definition
| yes! (the lack of it can lead to short-term cognitive deficits & long-term health consequences) |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways to read a brain wave read-out to tell if someone is dreaming |
|
Definition
1. increased thalamocortical activity
2. brainwaves that resemble waking |
|
|
Term
| do we know the purpose of sleep? |
|
Definition
| no (many cognitive faculties degrade without sleep though) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1: computation (why [problem])
2: algorithm (what [rules])
3: implementation (how [physical]) |
|
|
Term
| narcolepsy = sleeping disease caused by lack of production of a neuropeptide from the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the act of taking some sort of sensory information & focusing in on it? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of attention as selective filtering |
|
Definition
| if you hear two different kinds of dialogue but are told to only pay attention to one of them, you will be able to repeat the attended dialogue but forget/ignore the other dialogue |
|
|
Term
task: you are told to raise your hand to the side of the screen a star appears on; prior to star appearing you will see an arrow
arrow pointing in the correct direction of the star --> ? |
|
Definition
| decrease in reaction time |
|
|
Term
task: you are told to raise your hand to the side of the screen a star appears on; prior to star appearing you will see an arrow
arrow pointing in the incorrect direction of the star --> ? |
|
Definition
| increase in reaction time |
|
|
Term
task: find the number 2 in an image including mostly 5's
how could you use top down attention to look for it? |
|
Definition
| direct your brain on what it needs to focus on |
|
|
Term
task: find the number 2 in an image including mostly 5's
how could you use bottom up attention to look for it? |
|
Definition
| if the 2 is highlighted in a different color |
|
|
Term
| PPC works strongly with the ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one cue in receptive field of a PPC neuron --> response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lots of distractors outside of receptive field/where you're paying attention for a PPC neuron --> response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
experiment: you tell a monkey to pay attention to a given stimulus & record from PPC
if the monkey continues to pay attention to it --> ? |
|
Definition
| you will see sustained higher firing |
|
|
Term
experiment: you tell a monkey to pay attention to a given stimulus & record from PPC
if the monkey ignores it after the initial pop out --> ? |
|
Definition
| you will see a lower sustained firing |
|
|
Term
| 5 steps of taking in/paying attention to visual information |
|
Definition
1. visual scene comes into the eye
2. is broken down into its features
3. information is fed forward along "where" pathway to PPC & PFC
4. PFC is responsible for top-down modulation (i.e. "look for pink" or "look for the number 2") vs PPC is responsible for bottom up ("ooo look! it's orange in a field of green!" or "mmm carrot")
5. they also actually feed back to visual cortex |
|
|
Term
| how can top down input affect incoming sensory information? |
|
Definition
| can cause certain sensory information to pop out more |
|
|
Term
| if you ask a patient with hemineglect (damage to right inferior parietal lobe) to draw a line in the middle of a line (to bisect it) --> ? |
|
Definition
| they will not be able to do it (the line will be drifted to the right) |
|
|
Term
| if you ask a patient with hemineglect (damage to right inferior parietal lobe) to draw a house --> ? |
|
Definition
| they will only draw half of the house! (the right half) |
|
|
Term
| if you ask a patient with hemineglect (damage to right inferior parietal lobe) to draw a clock --> ? |
|
Definition
| they will draw a clock with all of the numbers (1 - 12) on the right side |
|
|
Term
| is the lateralization in cases of hemineglect caused by right inferior parietal lobe damage unique to humans? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| frontal areas are particularly involved in ______ attention |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
experiment: stimulated FEF --> you can evoke a saccade
if you stimulate FEF while there is something in V4 receptive field --> ? |
|
Definition
| you can increase/sustain V4 activity |
|
|
Term
experiment: stimulated FEF --> you can evoke a saccade
if you stimulate FEF while there is not something in V4 receptive field --> ? |
|
Definition
| this doesn't really make a difference! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. computation
2. algorithm
3. implementation |
|
|
Term
| what could be involved in the modulation of attention? |
|
Definition
| catecholamines! (they're great at modulation!) |
|
|
Term
| anterior attention system |
|
Definition
| dopamine selectively gates inputs to the anterior system via D1 receptor inhibition of excitatory NMDA inputs |
|
|
Term
| posterior attention system |
|
Definition
| norepinephrine enhances the signal-to-noise ratio of target cells by inhibiting basal neuronal firing |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways attention can work |
|
Definition
1. increasing signal
2. decreasing noise |
|
|
Term
| do dopamine & NE change the neuron's firing? |
|
Definition
| no (but they do change how those neurons respond to other inputs) |
|
|
Term
| 5 steps in normal NE pathway controlling attention |
|
Definition
1. binds alpha 2A receptor
2. activates Gi proteins
3. inhibits cAMP
4. closes HCN channels
5. inputs are shunted |
|
|
Term
| how is an ADHD brain affected for the normal NE pathway controlling attention? |
|
Definition
| NE doesn't exist SO other G proteins can get activated --> activates cAMP --> opens HCN channels -> inputs are not shunted |
|
|
Term
| circadian rhythm pattern repeats in about ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 components involved in circadian rhythem |
|
Definition
1. an "internal clock"
2. external stimuli (Zeitgebers) |
|
|
Term
| in humans, circadian rhythm usually works about a ______ system |
|
Definition
| 26 hour (not exactly a day) |
|
|
Term
| what will happen to a human's sleep cycle if you take them & put them in a room where the lights are always on & they have no access to outside sitmuli? |
|
Definition
| will switch to about a 26 hour clock because they have no external stimuli about what time it really is, any light to give any clue, etc. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the implication of the SCN neurons having a very regular pattern of oscillations? |
|
Definition
| works for a pattern of time keeping for the rest of the brain |
|
|
Term
| CRY-PER2 dimers influence on Clk & BMAL1 vs influence on Clk-BMAL1 dimers |
|
Definition
positively influences transcription of Clk & BMAL1
negatively influences the formation of Clk-BMAL1 dimers |
|
|
Term
| Clk-BMAL1 dimers enhance the transcription of _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what creates the rhythmic innate clock? |
|
Definition
| pattern of C-P/C-B dimer concentration |
|
|
Term
| what helps generate the self-sustaining oscillations that the SCN produces |
|
Definition
| pattern of C-P/C-B dimer concentration |
|
|
Term
| molecular clock initially starts with high levels of ______ & low level of _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the main role of the SCN? |
|
Definition
| really reliable biological clock! |
|
|
Term
| 3 steps by which SCN regulates wakefulness/sleep |
|
Definition
1. inhibitory onto subparaventricular nucleus
2. excites dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus
3. excitatory onto LC |
|
|
Term
| SCN being active --> disinhibits _______ --> allows it to inhibit a lot of the "wake" centers (VTA, LC, Raphe nuclei, etc.) |
|
Definition
| nuclei from the preoptic area (normally, this area is inhibited by dorsomedial hypothalamic nucleus) |
|
|
Term
| how does SCN inhibit production of melatonin? (2 steps) |
|
Definition
1. inhibitory to paraventricular nucleus PVN
2. excitatory onto pineal to produce melatonin |
|
|
Term
| how does input from eyes allow for mice to be nocturnal |
|
Definition
| when light hits the eye, it excites the SCN --> makes the whole sleep process |
|
|
Term
| in humans, is melatonin increased or decreased in the light? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 examples of zeitgebers (time-givers) |
|
Definition
1. light
2. food intake
3. physical activity
4. social interaction |
|
|
Term
| _______ are daily fluctuations in several bodily functions, including sleep |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 things that influence circadian rhythms |
|
Definition
1. external stimuli
2. internal stimuli
3. internal clocks (primarily the SCN) |
|
|
Term
| SCN is always excited by ______, SCN always decreases production of ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| you are more likely to remember what you heard/read first & last better than something in the middle of a list |
|
|
Term
| when remembering things from a list, you tend to _______ |
|
Definition
| group them into chunks of three or four |
|
|
Term
| why can you increase your amount of digit memory from 10 up to 80 by practicing memorizing random digits? |
|
Definition
| you are setting up a network function that is able to better deal with this task |
|
|
Term
| 3 major temporal categories of human memory |
|
Definition
1. immediate memory (fractions of a second - seconds)
2. short term memory (seconds - minutes)
3. long-term memory (days - years) |
|
|
Term
| forgetting someone's name after meeting them while you're talking to them is a failure of _______ |
|
Definition
| feeding the information from immediate to short-term memory |
|
|
Term
| when can forgetting be good? |
|
Definition
| we don't want to/need to remember everything that we take in |
|
|
Term
| what happens to the memory of events as time increases between current time & the time when an event occurred? |
|
Definition
| memory will continue to decrease as time from event increases |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. declarative (available to consciousness)
2. nondeclarative (generally not available to consciousness) |
|
|
Term
experiment: if you pick a red door, there will always be a reward behind it
controls do well, PD on L-DOPA do well, PD off L-DOPA cannot do this...this shows ________ |
|
Definition
| an issue with dopamine impairs nondeclarative memory |
|
|
Term
| acquisition & storage of declarative information |
|
Definition
short-term memory storage: hippocampus & related structures
long-term storage: a variety of cortical sites (Wernicke's area for the meanings of words, temporal cortex for the memories of objects & faces, etc.) |
|
|
Term
| acquisition & storage of nondeclarative information |
|
Definition
short-term memory storage: sites unknown but presumably widespread
long-term storage: cerebellum, basal ganglia, premotor cortex, & other sites related to motor behavior |
|
|
Term
experiment: a person perceives an image of an object & then is asked to imagine the object
what visual areas will be activated? |
|
Definition
| the same areas of visual cortex will be activated during imagination as those activated during physical perception |
|
|
Term
| what process is necessary for learning? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the physical manifestation of memory |
|
|
Term
| memory is the product of _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| experiment: if you show a chess board paused in the middle of a game & then ask two people to remember where the pieces are --> chess master vs beginner? |
|
Definition
| chess master will remember this much better than beginner |
|
|
Term
| experiment: if you show a chess board where the pieces are randomly scrambled around the board (not a real type of game possible scenario) & then ask two people to remember where the pieces are --> chess master vs beginner? |
|
Definition
| the beginner actually does better than the chess master! |
|
|
Term
experiment: show people either food or non-food when they are either hungry or sated
best memory: ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is context important for memory? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why might motivation be important for memory? |
|
Definition
| allows you to be more plastic, can more easily form new synapses, etc. |
|
|
Term
| inputs/outputs of hippocampus |
|
Definition
| widespread projections from association neocortex converge on the hippocampal region...the output of the hippocampus is ultimately directed back to these same neocortical areas |
|
|
Term
| hippocampus is where we discovered ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lesions to hippocampus --> huge deficits in _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| neurons in the ______ can tune their firing to a specific place in space |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens to place cells in hippocampus if the animal gets a rewad? |
|
Definition
| there is a very fast flutter of neural activity (sharp wave ripple) of place cells being re-played backwards |
|
|
Term
| 8 brain areas associated with declarative memory disorders |
|
Definition
1. thalamus
2. hippocampus
3. rhinal cortex
4. amygdala
5. mammillary body
6. prefrontal cortex
7. basal forebrain
8. fornix |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| memory is all about linking ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| active at a specific area in a space |
|
|
Term
| entorhinal cortex grid cell |
|
Definition
| active at various places in space |
|
|
Term
| Pavlov's dogs: before conditioning |
|
Definition
unconditioned stimulus (food) --> unconditioned response (drools)
neutral stimulus (bell) --> no response |
|
|
Term
| Pavlov's dogs: during conditioning |
|
Definition
| pair together food + bell --> unconditioned response (drool) |
|
|
Term
| Pavlov's dogs: after conditioning |
|
Definition
| conditioned stimulus (bell) --> conditioned response (drool) |
|
|
Term
| two kinds of conditioning |
|
Definition
1. delay (US & CS occur overlapping in time right in the end)
2. trace (US & CS are displaced over time when they are presented) |
|
|
Term
| example of operant (or instrumental) conditioning |
|
Definition
| rat can press a lever to either get a reward or avoid a shock |
|
|
Term
| key difference: operant vs classical conditioning |
|
Definition
| operant is voluntary, it is a choice |
|
|
Term
| spatial learning is often tested using the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| was suffering from epilepsy (hyperactivity of neural circuits, can lead to seizures/absence of attention/etc.) --> surgeon removed hyperactive part of brain (bilateral hippocampal removal) --> cured him of epilepsy BUT had anterograde amnesia |
|
|
Term
| what is surprising about Clive (cannot form any memories...lives entirely in the present) |
|
Definition
| still knows how to play piano! |
|
|
Term
| how would Clive write journal entries? |
|
Definition
| as he would write lines, he would go back & cross them out because he forgot writing them & thought someone else wrote them |
|
|
Term
| what is the only thing Clive remembers? |
|
Definition
| his wife...he is overwhelmingly happy to see her every time she visits |
|
|
Term
| 2 skills Clive can still do |
|
Definition
1. play piano
2. read music |
|
|
Term
| does Clive still remember some facts? |
|
Definition
| yes (ex. brings up Buckingham Palace being a place in conversation) |
|
|
Term
| 2 things found in AD brain |
|
Definition
1. neurofibrillary tangles
2. amyloid plaques |
|
|
Term
| AD particularly affects ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| middle step in AD memory loss progression |
|
Definition
| losing things around the house - still does will on memory tests |
|
|
Term
| later step in AD memory loss progression |
|
Definition
| trouble finding the right words in conversation, organization, learning new names, facts |
|
|
Term
| final step in AD memory loss progression |
|
Definition
| lose all inside & abilities in daily living |
|
|
Term
| declarative & procedural memories are the result of linking information & contexts through ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| declarative memory in particular resides in the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how can we create false memories? |
|
Definition
| ex) activate the "blue room" cells when the mouse was in the red room getting foot shock --> mouse became scared of blue room |
|
|
Term
| the amount of ______ in brains is the highest in humans |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| humans have the most developed/folded _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how has the frontal region of the skull changed throughout time? |
|
Definition
| can be seen to have grown outwards |
|
|
Term
| 3 things we have to do to make decisions |
|
Definition
1. assess the state of the world
2. determine values of actions, outcomes based on predicted relationships
3. generate responses that maximize value, minimize cost |
|
|
Term
| the critical element to decision making is to learn _______ |
|
Definition
| values & how to apply values aka understand contex |
|
|
Term
| 3 fundamentals of value systems |
|
Definition
1. having values
2. knowing the rules governing how to apply them
3. learning & dealing with complex information |
|
|
Term
| 2 things saccades are important for |
|
Definition
1. attention
2. how we view the world |
|
|
Term
| given a visual of someone looking at something else: control vs autism inviduals |
|
Definition
control individuals will be able to interpret that the image they are looking at is what the individual wants
individuals with autism will guess things in the image at random about what the individual wants |
|
|
Term
| 3 steps in reinforcement learning feedback loop |
|
Definition
1. environment
2. reward & state information to the agent
3. action back on the environment |
|
|
Term
| association cortices help bring ________ from the environment to the agent |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 5 brain regions involved in thinking, planning, & deciding |
|
Definition
1. dorsomedial prefrontal cortex
2. orbitofrontal cortex
3. dorsal anterior cingulate cortex
4. posterior cingulate cortex
5. ventromedial prefrontal cortex |
|
|
Term
| 6 areas connected to the lateral prefrontal cortex |
|
Definition
1. supplementary motor cortex (SM)
2. premotor cortex (PM)
3. frontal eye fields (FEF)
4. parietal cortex (PC)
5. secondary visual cortex (V2)
6. secondary auditory cortices (A2) |
|
|
Term
| 2 areas connected to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex/orbitofrontal cortex |
|
Definition
1. amygdala (Amy)
2. medial temporal lobe (MTL) |
|
|
Term
| dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is good at _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dorsolateral prefrontal cortex gets dopamine input from _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| equation for reward prediction error (temporal difference) |
|
Definition
| actual reward at this time + discount factor * predicted reward in the future - predicted reward at this time |
|
|
Term
| no prediction & reward occurs --> ? |
|
Definition
| big dopamine spike at reward |
|
|
Term
| reward prediction & reward occurs --> ? |
|
Definition
| big dopamine spike at conditioned stimulus (not reward!) |
|
|
Term
| reward prediction & no reward occurs --> ? |
|
Definition
| big dopamine spike at conditioned stimulus BUT a loss of dopamine signal at when the reward should have occurred but it didn't |
|
|
Term
| does brain use positive or negative feedback to help us learn about/ascribe values to things in various situations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why will a human take many less trials to learn a video game compared to a machine? |
|
Definition
| you are taking in visual information ahead of what your actual actions are giving you feedback on (ex. you can see something that looks like a bad guy, you assume ladders help you go up & down, you assume you don't want to touch the fire, etc.) |
|
|
Term
| relationship between actor & critic |
|
Definition
| actor makes an action, critic gives response if an action was bad or good |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in actor/critic model |
|
Definition
1. policy (actor)
2. action on environment
3. reward & state information to the value table (critic)
4. critique to the policy (actor) |
|
|
Term
experiment: monkey is trained to pick up either a cylinder or a pyramid & under the pyramid is always a cherry treat; monkey is also trained to pick up either a square or a dome & under the square is always a peanut treat; during the test, the monkey is given either the pyramid or square to choose from (both are rewarded)
if you sate the monkey on cherries prior to testing --> ? |
|
Definition
| he will pick up the square to get the peanuts |
|
|
Term
experiment: monkey is trained to pick up either a cylinder or a pyramid & under the pyramid is always a cherry treat; monkey is also trained to pick up either a square or a dome & under the square is always a peanut treat; during the test, the monkey is given either the pyramid or square to choose from (both are rewarded)
if you sate the monkey on peanuts prior to testing --> ? |
|
Definition
| he will pick up the pyramid to get the cherries |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how did scientists learn that rules are encoded in the PFC? |
|
Definition
| rules that went together (either juice or low tone) show same neural response, and other rules that went together (either no juice or high tone) show same neural response but distinct from the other rule |
|
|
Term
| why would it be bad that attention will be taken out of activity if you have a very strict set of rules? |
|
Definition
| something could change in the rules & you may not catch it if your attention is not present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| in the different cases, you are asked to respond with either the word or the color of the ink |
|
|
Term
| ACC is involved in ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in Stroop task, prior trial high activation of ACC --> ? |
|
Definition
| current trial higher activation of PFC |
|
|
Term
| ______ demonstrate major emotions (anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, etc.) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 things involved in emotion |
|
Definition
1. physiology
2. behavior
3. feeling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| voluntary smile vs laughter: someone with facial motor paresis |
|
Definition
| won't be able to make a voluntary smile BUT if they have an emotional response to something, their smile will look normal! |
|
|
Term
| voluntary smile vs laughter: someone with a lesion to the limbic emotional areas of the brain |
|
Definition
| will be able to make a voluntary smile BUT if they are told a joke, they won't really get a laughter motor response |
|
|
Term
| pathway disrupted by voluntary facial paresis |
|
Definition
1. volitional movement (descending pyramidal & extrapyramidal projections from motor cortex & brainstem)
2. pyramidal smile
3. motor neuron pools in facial nucleus
4. activation of facial muscles |
|
|
Term
| pathway disrupted by emotional facial paresis |
|
Definition
1. neural systems for emotional expression (descending extrapyramidal projections from medial forebrain & hypothalamus)
2. Duchenne smile
3. motor neuron pools in facial nucleus
4. activation of facial muscles |
|
|
Term
| why is it so hard to fake emotion? |
|
Definition
| two separate motor systems between emotion vs voluntary facial muscles |
|
|
Term
| 5 regions in limbic system |
|
Definition
1. cingulate gyrus
2. parahippocampal gyrus
3. temporal lobe
4. orbital & medial prefrontal cortex
5. corpus callosum |
|
|
Term
| 11 deeper structures in limbic system |
|
Definition
1. mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus
2. fornix
3. anterior nucleus of the thalamus
4. mammillothalamic tract
5. anterior commissure
6. ventral basal ganglia
7. hypothalamus
8. optic chiasm
9. amygdala
10. mammillary body
11. hippocampus |
|
|
Term
| if you do a lesion in a cat brain where hypothalamus & amygdala are separated from rest of brain --> ? |
|
Definition
| cat can have normal anger responses |
|
|
Term
| if you do a lesion where hypothalamus & amygdala are separated from cerebral cortex but left in tact with the rest of the brain --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can you see emotion in animals? |
|
Definition
| yes! (ex. look at their face) |
|
|
Term
| main fear center of brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where does the amygdala sit in brain? |
|
Definition
| right next to hippocampus (they interact a lot) |
|
|
Term
experiment: a mouse has to walk past an evil robot to get a pellet of food
normal vs lesioned amygdala mouse |
|
Definition
normal --> mouse will run away at site of robot
lesioned amygdala --> mouse won't pay robot any mind & will go get food |
|
|
Term
| patient with lesioned amygdala asked to draw emotions --> ? |
|
Definition
| can do most pretty much all fine EXCEPT FEAR |
|
|
Term
| 5 steps in pathway connecting auditory information to amygdala |
|
Definition
1. auditory pathways
2. medial geniculate gyrus
3. auditory cortex
4. amygdala
5. output to circuits that govern somatic & visceral motor activity |
|
|
Term
| is fear important for survival? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 steps in how learning occurs in amygdala |
|
Definition
1. inputs (primary reinforcers) + inputs (natural sensory stimuli)
2. learning
3. outputs (orbital & medial prefrontal cortex; implicit motor actions) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. cortical input (amygdala, hippocampus, orbitofrontal, anterior cingulate, temporal cortex)
2. striatum (ventral striatum)
3. pallidum (ventral pallidum, substantia nigra pars reticulata)
4. thalamus (mediodorsal nucleus)
5. feedback back onto cortex |
|
|
Term
| 3 regions hyperactive in depression |
|
Definition
1. orbital & medial prefrontal cortex
2. amygdala
3. mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus |
|
|
Term
| in bipolar, there is a wide swinging of dysregulation between what two areas? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 anatomy changes in PTSD brains |
|
Definition
1. hippocampus becomes smaller
2. amygdala becomes bigger |
|
|
Term
| experiment: PTSD brain vs control brain sweat response after extinction of learned shock association |
|
Definition
| PTSD brain shows significant increase in sweat response in response to CS paired to shock compared to controls; they also have significant increase in sweat response to unpaired CS! |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. VTA interneuron that releases GABA
2. nucleus accumbens medium spiny neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| synapse of VTA interneuron GABA onto VTA projection neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. glutamate inputs synapses onto VTA projection neuron
2. glutamate input synapses onto nucleus accumbens medium spiny neuron |
|
|
Term
| where cocaine & amphetamines act |
|
Definition
| dopamine release from VTA projection neuron to nucleus accumbens medium spiny neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nucleus accumbens medium spiny neuron |
|
|
Term
| basic emotions are controlled by _______ |
|
Definition
| innate, non-canonical descending pathways |
|
|
Term
| the amygdala in particular modulates _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| learned emotions, like almost everything else learned, requires _______ |
|
Definition
| the pairing of stimuli & contexts through LTP |
|
|
