Term
| divisions of the peripheral nervous system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| controls internal activities of organs and glands |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| controls external actions of skin and muscles |
|
|
Term
| divisions of the autonomic nervous system |
|
Definition
-sympathetic
-parasympathetic |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some types of nerves in the nervous system |
|
Definition
-spinal nerves
-cranial nerves |
|
|
Term
| some components of the PNS |
|
Definition
-nerves
-ganglia
-12 pairs of cranial nerves (8 mixed, 4 sensory)
-31 pairs of spinal nerves (all mixed) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nerves that exit the brain and brain stem |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nerves that exit the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| contain both sensory and motor fibers |
|
|
Term
| autonomic nervous system aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the flow of information in the autonomic nervous system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the effector organs for somatic motor system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the effector organs for autonomic motor system |
|
Definition
-Cardiac muscle
-smooth muscle
-glands |
|
|
Term
| presence of ganglia among somatic motor system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| presence of ganglia among autonomic motor system |
|
Definition
| Cell bodies of postganglionic autonomic fibers located in paravertebral, prevertebral (collateral), and terminal ganglia |
|
|
Term
| Number of neurons from CNS to effector in the somatic motor system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Number of neurons from CNS to effector in the autonomic motor system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Type of neuromuscular junction in the somatic motor system |
|
Definition
| Specialized motor end plate |
|
|
Term
| Type of neuromuscular junction in the autonomic motor system |
|
Definition
| No specialization of postsynaptic membrane; all areas of smooth muscle cells contain receptor proteins for neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| Effect of nerve impulse on muscle in somatic motor system |
|
Definition
Excitatory only
(nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (NAchRs)) |
|
|
Term
| Effect of nerve impulse on muscle in autonomic motor system |
|
Definition
Either excitatory or inhibitory
(G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs)) |
|
|
Term
| Type of nerve fibers in the somatic motor system |
|
Definition
| Fast-conducting, thick (9–13 μm), and myelinated |
|
|
Term
| Type of nerve fibers in the autonomic motor system |
|
Definition
| Slow-conducting; preganglionic fibers lightly myelinated but thin (3 μm); postganglionic fibers unmyelinated and very thin (about 1.0 μm) |
|
|
Term
| what the autonomic nervous system controls |
|
Definition
-Regulation of cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands
-Control of “involuntary” visceral organs & blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| what the autonomic nervous system regulates |
|
Definition
-cardiac muscle
-smooth muscle
-glands |
|
|
Term
| the central control in the autonomic nervous system |
|
Definition
-hypothalamus
-brain stem
-spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| where the preganglionic neuron is |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| general scheme for how the autonomic nervous system is organized |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons in the autonomic nervous system in relation to the preganglionic and postganglionic neurons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system consists of... |
|
Definition
-preganglionic neurons (cell bodies in the CNS)
-postganglionic neurons (cell bodies in the PNS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell bodies in the CNS that are part of the ANS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cell bodies in the PNS that are part of the ANS |
|
|
Term
| where the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS differ |
|
Definition
-the origination of preganglionic fibers
-the location of autonomic ganglia
-the neurotransmitters used (to some extent, mostly in the postganglionic neurons) |
|
|
Term
| General functional differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS |
|
Definition
-“rest & digest” (parasympathetic)
-“fight or flight” (sympathetic) |
|
|
Term
| diagram of the general differences between the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the preganglionic cells come from in the sympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
| thoracic and lumbar segments of the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| where the preganglionic cells come from in the parasympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
-brain stem
-lowermost (sacral) part of the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the double row of sympathetic ganglia that run alongside the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| prevertebral or collateral ganglia |
|
Definition
| sympathetic ganglia that are further out into the periphery than the paravertebral ganglia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| parasympathetic ganglia that are close to or within the target tissues |
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neurons in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons in the sympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter released by postganglionic neurons in the parasympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the way the sympathetic chain of ganglia is set up |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| information flows into the spinal cord through ______ roots |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| information flows out of the spinal cord through ______ roots |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A sympathetic chain of ganglia (paravertebral ganglia) |
|
Definition
| line either side of the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| ______ split from the spinal nerves via the white rami, wherein they enter the paravertebral ganglia. These preganglionic fibers branch. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Preganglionic axons split from the spinal nerves via the ______, wherein they enter the paravertebral ganglia. These preganglionic fibers branch. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Preganglionic axons split from the spinal nerves via the white rami, wherein they enter the ______. These preganglionic fibers branch. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Preganglionic axons split from the spinal nerves via the white rami, wherein they enter the paravertebral ganglia. These preganglionic fibers... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some ______ synapse with postganglionic neurons within the sympathetic chain of ganglia; these postganglionic axons leave via the gray rami & rejoin the spinal nerves. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers synapse with ______ within the sympathetic chain of ganglia; these postganglionic axons leave via the gray rami & rejoin the spinal nerves. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic neurons within the ______; these postganglionic axons leave via the gray rami & rejoin the spinal nerves. |
|
Definition
| sympathetic chain of ganglia |
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic neurons within the sympathetic chain of ganglia; these postganglionic axons leave via the ______ & rejoin the spinal nerves. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic neurons within the sympathetic chain of ganglia; these postganglionic axons leave via the gray rami & rejoin the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some ______ simply pass through the sympathetic chain of ganglia, forming splanchnic nerves, and synapse with postganglionic neurons within collateral (prevertebral) ganglia. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers simply pass through the ______, forming splanchnic nerves, and synapse with postganglionic neurons within collateral (prevertebral) ganglia. |
|
Definition
| sympathetic chain of ganglia |
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers simply pass through the sympathetic chain of ganglia, forming ______, and synapse with postganglionic neurons within collateral (prevertebral) ganglia. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers simply pass through the sympathetic chain of ganglia, forming splanchnic nerves, and synapse with ______ within collateral (prevertebral) ganglia. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers simply pass through the sympathetic chain of ganglia, forming splanchnic nerves, and synapse with postganglionic neurons within... |
|
Definition
| collateral (prevertebral) ganglia |
|
|
Term
| Some ______ innervate the adrenal medulla, causing it to secrete Epi (and Norepi) into the blood. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers ______ the adrenal medulla, causing it to secrete Epi (and Norepi) into the blood. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers innervate the ______, causing it to secrete Epi (and Norepi) into the blood. |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Some preganglionic fibers innervate the adrenal medulla, causing it to... |
|
Definition
| secrete Epi (and Norepi) into the blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the sympathetic system is typically activated as a single unit |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| supply (an organ or other body part) with nerves |
|
|
Term
| how information flows through the sympathetic motor neurons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why the sympathetic chain can do mass activation (activation as a single unit) |
|
Definition
| because of the paravetebral ganglia that are so close to each other along the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| in the ______ division of the autonomic nervous system, preganglionic fibers originate in the midbrain, medulla, pons, and sacral levels of the spinal cord |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, ______ fibers originate in the midbrain, medulla, pons, and sacral levels of the spinal cord |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, preganglionic fibers originate in the... |
|
Definition
| midbrain, medulla, pons, and sacral levels of the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| in the ______ division of the autonomic nervous system, preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic fibers in terminal ganglia which lie close to or within target organs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system, preganglionic fibers synapse with postganglionic fibers in... |
|
Definition
| terminal ganglia which lie close to or within target organs |
|
|
Term
| Most parasympathetic fibers (are or are not) bundled within spinal nerves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cutaneous effectors & blood vessels associated with skeletal muscle (are or are not) parasympathetically-innervated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ carry parasympathetic preganglionic fibers |
|
Definition
| Four cranial nerve pairs (including the vagus) |
|
|
Term
| Four cranial nerve pairs (including the vagus) carry ______ preganglionic fibers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Four cranial nerve pairs (including the vagus) carry parasympathetic... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the primary route of parasympathetic innervation of the internal organs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some organs that the vagus nerves innervate |
|
Definition
-Heart
-Lungs
-Esophagus
-Stomach
-Pancreas
-Liver
-Intestines |
|
|
Term
| The preganglionic fibers of the vagus nerves originate in the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Multiple branches of the vagus nerves synapse with postganglionic cells at... |
|
Definition
| terminal ganglia within the target tissues |
|
|
Term
| depiction of internal organs controlled by vagus nerves |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the experiment that led to the discovery of the very first neurotransmitter |
|
Definition
[image]
-"Vagus substance" refers to the neurotransmitter causing the heartbeat
-the neurotransmitter here is acetylcholine |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system and what they control |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ANS motor neurons are named according to... |
|
Definition
| the direction of information flow relative to peripheral ganglia |
|
|
Term
| the types of neurons in the ANS |
|
Definition
-Preganglionic neuron
-Postganglionic neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carries info into the ganglion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| carries info out of the ganglion |
|
|
Term
| ANS ganglia are named according to... |
|
Definition
| the anatomical location relative to spinal cord and/or effector organs |
|
|
Term
| are Paravertebral ganglia sympathetic or parasympathetic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are Prevertebral (collateral) ganglia sympathetic or parasympathetic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are Terminal ganglia sympathetic or parasympathetic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
SAME = Sensory - Afferent - Motor - Efferent
DAVE = Dorsal - Afferent - Ventral - Efferent
(dorsal and ventral refers to where they come in and out of the spinal cord) |
|
|
Term
| the spinal roots that carry afferent (sensory) fibers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the spinal roots that carry efferent (motor) fibers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Preganglionic fibers of both divisions of the ANS release this neurotransmitter |
|
Definition
acetylcholine
(they're cholinergic) |
|
|
Term
| what it means for the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the ANS to be antagonistic towards each other |
|
Definition
| Target organs display opposing behaviors due to release of different neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter released by most postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
norepinephrine
(they're (nor)adrenergic)
however, some release acetylcholine
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter released by most postganglionic fibers in the parasympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the neurotransmitters of the autonomic nervous system in their context |
|
Definition
[image]
red is sympathetic and blue is parasympathetic |
|
|
Term
| the receptor on the preganglionic fiber in the autonomic nervous system |
|
Definition
| nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| nicotinic acetylcholine receptor |
|
|
Term
| the receptor on the postganglionic fiber in the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system |
|
Definition
| muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| muscarinic acetylcholine receptor |
|
|
Term
| the receptors on most postganglionic fibers in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system |
|
Definition
| α1-, α2-, β1-, β2- adrenergic receptors
-these are G-protein-coupled receptors |
|
|
Term
| one difference between epinephrine and norepinephrine |
|
Definition
| norepinephrine acts as a neurotransmitter while epinephrine acts as a hormone |
|
|
Term
| how the ANS postganglionic neurons (both sympathetic and parasympathetic) interact with muscles and possible other target organs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why the response between preganglionic and postganglionic neurons is always excitatory |
|
Definition
| because acetylcholine is released and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how the info flows from the preganglionic neurons to the postganglionic neurons to the target tissue |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sympathetic Adrenergic Innervation is Excitatory in some tissues, inhibitory in others; dependent on... |
|
Definition
| receptor type and intracellular machinery |
|
|
Term
| Excitatory signals in the sympathetic part of the ANS cause... |
|
Definition
| (EPSP, contraction/constriction, or vesicle release)
-Increase cardiac output (β1)
-Vasoconstriction at some viscera (α1) |
|
|
Term
| Inhibitory signals in the sympathetic part of the ANS cause... |
|
Definition
| (IPSP or relaxation/dilation):
-Relaxation of bronchioles (β2)
-Vasodilation at some viscera (β2)
-Vasodilation at skeletal muscles (β2 / muscarinic) |
|
|
Term
| the receptors on heart cells that contribute to increased cardiac output in response to an excitatory signal from the sympathetic part of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors on blood vessels that contribute to vasoconstriction at some viscera in response to an excitatory signal from the sympathetic part of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors on bronchioles that contribute to relaxation of bronchioles in response to an inhibitory signal from the sympathetic part of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors on blood vessels that contribute to vasodilation at some viscera in response to an inhibitory signal from the sympathetic part of the ANS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors on blood vessels that contribute to vasodilation at skeletal muscles in response to an inhibitory signal from the sympathetic part of the ANS |
|
Definition
| -β2 if the presynaptic cell releases norepinephrine
-muscarinic if the presynaptic cell releases acetylcholine |
|
|
Term
| All adrenergic receptors are these types of receptors |
|
Definition
| G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) |
|
|
Term
| some downstream effects of andrenergic receptors getting activated by neurotransmitters |
|
Definition
-Modulation of ion channel permeability
-Modulation of enzyme activity ( --> changes in ion channel permeability)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what happens when β receptors get activated in the sympathetic part of the ANS? |
|
Definition
| β1-, β2-receptor activation --> increases [cAMP]i
---> smooth muscle relaxation (bronchioles; vasodilation)
---> increased heart contraction |
|
|
Term
| the signal transduction cascade for β-adrenergic signaling |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens when α1 receptors get activated in the sympathetic part of the ANS? |
|
Definition
| α1 -receptor activation --> increases [Ca2+]i --> smooth muscle contraction --> vasoconstriction at certain viscera |
|
|
Term
| what happens when α2 receptors get activated in the sympathetic part of the ANS? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ion that flows into the cell to activate heart contraction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Effects of parasympathetic cholinergic innervation at target tissues can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on... |
|
Definition
| muscarinic receptor (mACh-R) subtype (all GPCRs) |
|
|
Term
| example of excitatory effect of parasympathetic cholinergic innervation |
|
Definition
| M3, M5 activation --> opening of Ca channels --> increased [Ca]i --> depolarization/ contraction of smooth muscles or increased gland secretions |
|
|
Term
| example of inhibitory effect of parasympathetic cholinergic innervation |
|
Definition
| M2 activation --> slows heart rate (via vagus)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how heart rate is decreased |
|
Definition
| Parasympathetic cholinergic innervation via vagus --> M2-type muscarinic receptors --> indirectly opens K+ channels --> hyperpolarization of heart muscle cells --> slowing of heart rate
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Nicotinic vs. muscarinic receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are found |
|
Definition
postsynaptic membrane of...
-all autonomic ganglia
-all neuromuscular junctions
-some CNS pathways |
|
|
Term
| the effect of the signal on the postsynaptic neuron with the nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the effect of the signal on the postsynaptic neuron with the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChR) |
|
Definition
| can be excitatory or inhibitory |
|
|
Term
| details about muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) |
|
Definition
-produces parasympathetic nerve effects in the heart, smooth muscles, and glands
-G-protein-coupled receptors (receptors influence ion channels by means of G-proteins) |
|
|
Term
| Most visceral organs are dually-innervated, which means... |
|
Definition
| they receive input from both the sympathetic and parasympathetic sides of the ANS |
|
|
Term
| the relationships that can exist between the sympathetic and parasympathetic innervations of the visceral organs |
|
Definition
-Antagonistic (most common)
-Complementary (similar effects)
-Cooperative (synergistic effects) |
|
|
Term
| some organs that are innervated only by the sympathetic division of the ANS |
|
Definition
-Adrenal medulla
-Arrector pili muscles (skin)
-Sweat glands (skin)
-Most blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| components of the iris controlled by the ANS |
|
Definition
-radial muscle
-circular muscle |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic action of the radial muscle in the iris |
|
Definition
| Contracts (dilates pupil) |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the radial muscle in the iris |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic function of the circular muscle in the iris |
|
Definition
| Contracts (constricts pupil) |
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic receptor in the circular muscle in the iris |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of the heart controlled by the ANS |
|
Definition
-sinoatrial node
-contractility |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic function of the sinoatrial node in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the sinoatrial node in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic function of the sinoatrial node in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic receptor in the sinoatrial node in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic function of the contractility in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the contractility in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic function of the contractility in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic receptor in the contractility in the heart |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of the vascular smooth muscle controlled by the ANS |
|
Definition
-Skin, splanchnic vessels
-Skeletal muscle vessels |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic action of the Skin, splanchnic vessels in the vascular smooth muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the Skin, splanchnic vessels in the vascular smooth muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic function of the bronchiolar smooth muscle |
|
Definition
| Relaxes (bronchodilation) |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the bronchiolar smooth muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic function of the bronchiolar smooth muscle |
|
Definition
| Contracts (bronchoconstriction) |
|
|
Term
| parasympathetic receptor in the bronchiolar smooth muscle |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of the skin controlled by the ANS |
|
Definition
-Pilomotor smooth muscle
-Sweat glands |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic function of the Pilomotor smooth muscle in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the Pilomotor smooth muscle in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of the sweat glands in the skin that are controlled by the ANS |
|
Definition
-Thermoregulatory
-Apocrine (stress) in palms |
|
|
Term
| sympathetic function of the thermoregulatory in the sweat glands in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the thermoregulatory in the sweat glands in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic function of the Apocrine (stress) in palms in the sweat glands in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sympathetic receptor in the Apocrine (stress) in palms in the sweat glands in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the Control of the ANS by the CNS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the part of the brain that serves as command central for both the ANS and the endocrine system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Sensory Physiology is about... |
|
Definition
| How we perceive our environment |
|
|
Term
| Three common steps associated with any sense |
|
Definition
-A physical stimulus
-Sensory transduction: transformation of sensory input into nerve impulses
-Formulation of “perception”, or our conscious experience of that sensation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| transformation of sensory input into nerve impulses |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-somatosensory
-Visual
-Auditory
-Vestibular
-Olfactory
-Gustatory |
|
|
Term
| some senses within the somatosensory system |
|
Definition
-Touch
-Proprioception
-Temperature
-Pain |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Four basic types of information conveyed by each sensory system |
|
Definition
-Modality (type) of stimulus
-Intensity of stimulus
-Time course of stimulus
-Location of stimulus |
|
|
Term
| what the sensory cells are |
|
Definition
-Some are themselves neurons (afferent)
-Most are specialized epithelial cells that synapse on adjacent sensory neurons |
|
|
Term
| the 4 functional classes of sensory receptors |
|
Definition
-Mechanoreceptors
-Chemoreceptors
-Thermoreceptors
-Photoreceptors |
|
|
Term
| what sensory receptors at the protein level |
|
Definition
-Channels (e.g. stretch receptors)
-GPCR’s (e.g. photoreceptors of retina) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-sense pressure and movement
-found in skin, muscles, and ears |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-sense light
-found in eyes |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-sense chemicals
-found in the nose and mouth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-sense temperature
-found in the skin |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-sense pain
-found in skin |
|
|
Term
| receptors that are channels at the protein level |
|
Definition
-stretch receptors
-ear proteins that detect sound
[image] |
|
|
Term
| receptors that are GPCRs at the protein level |
|
Definition
photoreceptors of retina
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some other somatic senses |
|
Definition
-Pain
-Temperature
-Itch
-Proprioception |
|
|
Term
| Each sensory receptor responds to... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The sensory receptor transduces the external stimulus into... |
|
Definition
| changes in membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways the sensory receptor transduces the external stimulus into changes in membrane potential |
|
Definition
-Stimulus transduction
-Receptor/generator potential |
|
|
Term
| Stimulus intensity is encoded by... |
|
Definition
| action potential frequency in sensory neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Produced in specialized dendritic processes of primary sensory neuron (= sensory receptor) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Produced in specialized epithelial cell (= sensory receptor)
-Communicated to associated primary sensory neuron |
|
|
Term
| depiction of Receptor vs. Generator Potentials |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Duration of sensation is in part encoded by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of receptors that adapt |
|
Definition
-Phasic receptors
-Tonic receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what encodes the location of a stimulus? |
|
Definition
| the receptive field of a sensory neuron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
encodes the location of the stimulus
[image]
each circled area is a separate receptive field |
|
|
Term
| In sensory systems, the receptive field is oftentimes comprised of a ______ and a ______ |
|
Definition
“center”
“surround”
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the "center" and the "surround" of the receptive field in a sensory system and the associated cortical neurons react to touch |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| soma modalities detected by somatosensory perception |
|
Definition
-Touch
-Proprioception
-Temperature
-Pain
-Itch |
|
|
Term
| some types of somatosensory receptors |
|
Definition
-cutaneous (skin) receptors
-proprioceptors |
|
|
Term
| some types of cutaneous (skin) receptors |
|
Definition
-Touch/pressure R’s
-Hot/cold R’s
-Nociceptors (pain R’s) |
|
|
Term
| some types of propioceptors |
|
Definition
-Muscle spindles
-Golgi tendon organs
-Joint R’s |
|
|
Term
| how cutaneous receptors transmit information |
|
Definition
| by converting change in pressure into signals |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the types of cutaneous receptors in the skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors ignoring a benign stimulus that doesn't go away |
|
|
Term
| the 4 types of touch receptors, their receptive fields, and their intensity and time course |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the ascending pathway used by the 4 types of touch receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the components of the eye you're expected to be familiar with |
|
Definition
-Cornea
-Iris
-Pupil
-Lens
-Retina
-Fovea
-Optic Nerve
-Vitreous Humor |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the white of the eyes comes from the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the sclera is continuous with the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the phototransduction of the eyeball |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
very small little divot, only about 2 millimeters in diameter, that constitutes the very center of your field of vision
[image] |
|
|
Term
| which part of the eye is responsible for ability to create a very sharp image in the very center of our visual field, a color image? |
|
Definition
the fovea centralis, which strictly contains cones corresponding to 3 different wavelengths
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the part of the retina that has a heavier concentration of rod cells |
|
Definition
peripheral retina (outside the fovea)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what's in charge of the peripheral vision? rods or cones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
where the optic nerve exits the retina
-this is also where the blind spot is, because of no photoreceptors
[image] |
|
|
Term
| where the eye's blind spot is |
|
Definition
| the optic disc, since there's no photoreceptors there |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
basically the fluid-filled cavity in the eyeball
[image] |
|
|
Term
| why we have depth perception |
|
Definition
| because of the overlapping visual fields of each eye |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how the light rays go through the eye |
|
Definition
[image]
notice that each eye has a left and right visual field |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the area of crossover between the optic nerves
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the crossover works in terms of the visual field |
|
Definition
for each eye, one field remains ipsilateral and the other is contralateral such that the left visual field gets to the right side of the brain and the right visual field gets to the left side of the brain
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the muscles responsible for dilation of the pupil |
|
Definition
| radial muscles, which are sympathetic |
|
|
Term
| the muscles responsible for contraction of the pupil |
|
Definition
| circular muscles, which are parasympathetic |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the autonomic control of pupil diameter |
|
Definition
[image]
for both, the effect is stimulatory |
|
|
Term
| ______ of the retina transduce electromagnetic energy, in the form of photons |
|
Definition
| Photoreceptor cells (PRCs) |
|
|
Term
| Photoreceptor cells (PRCs) of the retina ______ electromagnetic energy, in the form of photons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 2 types of Photoreceptor cells (PRCs) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| details about the rods of the retina |
|
Definition
-Dim-light vision
-Greater sensitivity to light
-Rhodopsin is the light-receptor |
|
|
Term
| details about the cones of the retina |
|
Definition
-Color vision
-Greater visual acuity
-Photopsins are the light-receptors |
|
|
Term
| the vertical pathway within the retina |
|
Definition
| PRCs --> Bipolar cells --> Ganglion cells (optic nerve) |
|
|
Term
| the 3 different types of cones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the light receptors in the rod cells of the retina |
|
Definition
| rhodopsins, which are GPCRs |
|
|
Term
| the light receptors in the cone cells of the retina |
|
Definition
| photopsins, which are GPCRs |
|
|
Term
| the cells that ultimately fire off action potentials corresponding to vision |
|
Definition
| Ganglion cells (optic nerve) |
|
|
Term
| depiction of everything the light rays have to go through before phototransduction can occur |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the photopigment that gets activated by the incoming light rays |
|
|
Term
| role of the pigmented epithelium |
|
Definition
-Homeostasis of PRCs
-Visual cycle of retinal; they recycle retinal |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the back of the retina
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the neurons that mediate lateral information flow in visual processing |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some interneurons mediate lateral information flow |
|
Definition
-Horizontal cells
-Amacrine cells |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the rod and cone cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the synaptic endings of rod and cone cells do to transmit a signal |
|
Definition
| release neurotransmitters that communicate with bipolar cells |
|
|
Term
| the parts of the rod and cone cells that have all the phototransduction equipment |
|
Definition
| the rod and cone-shaped structures that contain layers of membranes |
|
|
Term
| some things rod and cone cells have in common |
|
Definition
-their Photoreceptors are GPCR’s
-Photopigment is retinal
-G-protein is transducin
-"dark current," in which...
+PRCs are depolarized in dark
+PRCs are hyperpolarized in light |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the inside of the rod and cone cells looks like |
|
Definition
[image]
notice that the only real architectural difference is that the stack of membranes in the cone is infoldings of the membrane while the stack of membranes in the rod is intracellular |
|
|
Term
| structure of the membrane in the rod |
|
Definition
[image]
the receptor here is a GPCR |
|
|
Term
| how rod cells behave in dark and light |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how phototransduction in a rod occurs |
|
Definition
| -λ (photon) activates Rhodopsin
-Rhodopsin activates Gt (transducin), causing the alpha and beta-gamma subunits to dissociate
-Gα(GTP) activates cGMP-dependent phosphodiesterase (PDE)
-PDE decreases [cGMP]i
-Decreased [cGMP]i closes Na+ channels
-Decreased Na+ influx hyperpolarizes the rod cell
-Hyperpolarization means decreased neurotransmitter release at PRC/BPC synapse |
|
|
Term
| how the photopigment gets activated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the photopigment gets recycled |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how phototransduction occurs in a rod |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the vertical pathway in vision |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the effect of glutamate in the vertical pathway in vision |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors on the ganglion cells that consist of the optic nerve |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the wavelength absorbed by rods |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the types of cones in the retina |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the distribution of the rods and cones in the fovea |
|
Definition
[image]
notice the indentation where the light has an easier time getting to the photoreceptors |
|
|
Term
| distribution of cones in different parts of the retina |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how convergence of information occurs in the retina |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one reason we have better visual acuity in the fovea than in the peripheral part of the retina |
|
Definition
because the cones in the fovea each bind with one bipolar cell, which binds to one ganglion cell; this means no convergence
[image]
notice that several rods bind to one bipolar cell, and more than one bipolar cell binds to the ganglion cell,; this means convergence |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the receptive field on the retina |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the information flow in vision |
|
Definition
| PRCs --> BPCs --> ganglion cells --> thalamic neurons (LGN) --> cortical neurons in the occipital lobe of the brain |
|
|
Term
| “On-center” ganglionic cells |
|
Definition
| they are most stimulated by central illumination & darkness in the surround |
|
|
Term
| “Off-center” ganglionic cells |
|
Definition
| they are most stimulated by surround illumination & darkness in the center |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how on- and off-center ganglionic cells detect contrast |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The study of endocrine glands/tissue, the hormones they release, and their effects on target tissues |
|
|
Term
| Hormones are carried via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-body metabolism
-growth
-reproduction |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the hypothalamus |
|
Definition
| Releasing and inhibiting hormones |
|
|
Term
| primary target organ of the Releasing and inhibiting hormones released by the hypothalamus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the Releasing and inhibiting hormones released by the hypothalamus |
|
Definition
| Regulates secretion of anterior pituitary hormones |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the pituitary gland, anterior lobe |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| major target organs of the Trophic hormones released by the pituitary gland, anterior lobe |
|
Definition
| Endocrine glands and other organs |
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the Trophic hormones released by the pituitary gland, anterior lobe |
|
Definition
| Stimulates growth and development of target organs; stimulates secretion of other hormones |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the pituitary gland, posterior lobe |
|
Definition
| Antidiuretic hormone Oxytocin |
|
|
Term
| primary target organs of the Antidiuretic hormone Oxytocin released by the pituitary gland, posterior lobe |
|
Definition
| Kidneys and blood vessels Uterus and mammary glands |
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the Antidiuretic hormone Oxytocin released by the pituitary gland, posterior lobe |
|
Definition
| Antidiuretic hormone promotes water retention and vasoconstriction; oxytocin stimulates contraction of uterus and mammary secretory units, promoting milk ejection |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the thyroid gland |
|
Definition
| Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3); calcitonin |
|
|
Term
| primary target organs of the Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) and calcitonin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the Thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3) and calcitonin |
|
Definition
| Thyroxine and triiodothyronine promote growth and development and stimulate basal rate of cell respiration (basal metabolic rate or BMR); calcitonin may participate in the regulation of blood Ca2+ levels |
|
|
Term
| components of the adrenal glands |
|
Definition
-adrenal cortex
-adrenal medulla |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
| Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) |
|
|
Term
| primary target organs of the Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) and Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) released by the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the Glucocorticoids (mainly cortisol) and Mineralocorticoids (mainly aldosterone) released by the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
| Glucocorticoids influence glucose metabolism; mineralocorticoids promote Na+ retention, K+ excretion |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| major target organs of the Epinephrine released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
-Heart
-bronchioles
-blood vessels |
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the Epinephrine released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
| Causes adrenergic stimulation |
|
|
Term
| major hormones released by the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| primary target organs of the insulin and glucagon released by the pancreas |
|
Definition
-Liver
-skeletal muscle
-adipose tissue |
|
|
Term
| primary effects of the insulin and glucagon released by the pancreas |
|
Definition
| Insulin promotes cellular uptake of glucose and formation of glycogen and fat; glucagon stimulates hydrolysis of glycogen and fat |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inactive hormone precursor molecules (prohormones & prehormones (a.k.a. preprohormones)) |
|
|
Term
| prohormones & prehormones (a.k.a. preprohormones) |
|
Definition
Inactive hormone precursor molecules
prehormone/preprohormones --> prohormones --> hormones |
|
|
Term
| The nervous & endocrine systems overlap in terms of... |
|
Definition
| chemical transmitters and receptor proteins |
|
|
Term
| most target tissues are regulated by how many hormones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the downstream effects hormones have on target tissues |
|
Definition
-mostly antagonistic
-can be complementary |
|
|
Term
| the response of the target tissue can change as a function of... |
|
Definition
| the circulating concentrations of hormones in the blood supply |
|
|
Term
| when you tend to see sensitization or upregulation of the response of the target tissue |
|
Definition
| when the hormone is changing within the physiological range |
|
|
Term
| when you tend to see desensitization or down regulation of the target tissue |
|
Definition
| when you have pharmacological ranges, or toxic ranges, of circulating hormones, or perhaps the presence of synthetic hormones or hormone mimetics |
|
|
Term
| 2 ways to classify hormones |
|
Definition
-chemical structures
-physical properties |
|
|
Term
| groups of hormones based on chemical structure |
|
Definition
-amino acid derivatives
-peptides and proteins
-steroids |
|
|
Term
| groups of hormones based on physical properties |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some hormones that are amino acids or derivatives of amino acids |
|
Definition
-Epinephrine & norepinephrine (adrenal medulla)
-Thyroid hormones
-Melatonin (pineal gland) |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that are peptides and proteins |
|
Definition
-Hypothalamic & pituitary hormones
-Insulin & glucagon (pancreas)
-Parathyroid hormone |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that are steroids |
|
Definition
-Corticosteroids (adrenal cortex)
-Sex steroids (gonads) |
|
|
Term
| most of our hormones fit into this chemical structure group of hormones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| steroids are derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what makes the big difference in terms of what type of receptor the hormone will interact with at target tissues? |
|
Definition
| whether the hormone is hydrophilic or hydrophobic |
|
|
Term
| 2 groups of hormones based on physical properties |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Hydrophilic hormones interact with... |
|
Definition
| cell-surface receptors at target tissues |
|
|
Term
| Hydrophobic (or lipophilic) hormones interact with... |
|
Definition
| intracellular receptors at target tissues |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that are hydrophilic |
|
Definition
-All peptide & protein hormones
-Epinephrine & norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that are hydrophobic |
|
Definition
-Steroid hormones
-Thyroid hormones |
|
|
Term
| the vast majority of hormones are hydrophilic or hydrophobic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the different types of cellular receptors hormones interact with |
|
Definition
-enzyme-linked
-GPCRs
-intracellular |
|
|
Term
| how enzyme-linked receptors react to hormones |
|
Definition
| they act through intracellular 2nd messengers (cAMP, Ca2+, kinases) |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that interact with enzyme-linked receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how GPCRs react to hormones |
|
Definition
| they act through intracellular 2nd messengers (cAMP, Ca2+, kinases) |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that interact with GPCRs |
|
Definition
-Epinephrine
-norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| how intracellular receptors react to hormones |
|
Definition
| they act as transcription factors in the nucleus |
|
|
Term
| some hormones that interact with intracellular receptors |
|
Definition
-Steroids
-thyroid hormones |
|
|
Term
| the types of receptors hormones interact with and what those receptors look like |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the pancreas is not under the control of the... |
|
Definition
| hypothalamic-pituitary axis (HPA) |
|
|
Term
| hormones released by the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the endocrine portion of the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the endocrine portion of the pancreas |
|
|
Term
| 2 types of endocrine cells in the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| alpha-cells in the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| beta-cells in the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Changes in ______ influence secretion of pancreatic hormones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pancreatic hormones regulate... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Pancreatic hormones influence... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how insulin influences cell metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how glucagon influences cell metabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| target tissues of the insulin and glucagon released by the pancreas |
|
Definition
-liver
-skeletal muscle
-adipocytes |
|
|
Term
| depiction of alpha and beta cells in the pancreas |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| comparison of Anabolism vs. Catabolism |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
promote the creation of larger molecules
consumes energy |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
breakdown of larger molecules into smaller byproducts
releases energy |
|
|
Term
| the effect of glucagon on the liver |
|
Definition
| breakdown of glycogen such that free glucose is released into the bloodstream |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how the pancreas responds to changes in glucose levels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 processes that are activated by glucagon |
|
Definition
-glycogenolysis
-gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| the structure of insulin from preprohormone to active hormone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the most prevalent type of enzyme-linked cell surface receptor |
|
Definition
Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| The insulin receptor is this kind of receptor |
|
Definition
a Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs)
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| enzymes that phosphorylate proteins |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| they attach phosphate groups to tyrosine residues within proteins |
|
|
Term
| what phosphorylates the activated insulin receptor? |
|
Definition
| the activated insulin receptor phosphorylates itself |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how the insulin receptor gets activated |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what activates the kinase activity of the intracellular side of the insulin receptor? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how insulin stimulates the uptake of blood glucose |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effect of insulin on liver and muscle |
|
Definition
| Increases glycogen synthesis (glucose --> glycogen) |
|
|
Term
| effect of insulin on adipocytes (fat) |
|
Definition
| Increases fat stores (glucose --> triglycerides) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
insulin-dependent glucose uniporter found only in skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and fat cells
[image] |
|
|
Term
| metabolic effect of insulin |
|
Definition
as glucose enters the cell, enzymes that make glycogen are activated
Increases glycogen synthesis (glucose --> glycogen) in liver & muscle
Increases fat stores in adipocytes (glucose --> triglycerides) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| insulin-independent glucose transporter found on hepatocytes that moves glucose into the cells when blood glucose is high and out of the cells when blood glucose is low |
|
|
Term
| When blood glucose increases, >95% of blood glucose is taken up by... |
|
Definition
| muscle & fat tissues (~90/10 muscle/fat) |
|
|
Term
| Major effect of insulin at the liver |
|
Definition
| to decrease gluconeogenesis & increase glycogen synthesis |
|
|
Term
| Major effect of glucagon is at the liver |
|
Definition
| to increase glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| Exercise increases ______ levels and decreases ______ levels, probably due to... |
|
Definition
glucagon
insulin
lowered blood glucose levels |
|
|
Term
| of the glucose that gets taken up by muscle and fat tissue, how much goes to muscle and how much goes to fat? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| hormones released by the hypothalamus that communicate with the pituitary gland |
|
Definition
-Releasing hormones
-Inhibiting hormones |
|
|
Term
| hormones released from the anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
-GH
-TSH
-ACTH
-FSH
-LH
-prolactin |
|
|
Term
| hormones released from the posterior pituitary |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the "master controller" of most of our endocrine systems |
|
Definition
| the Hypothalamus/Pituitary Axis (HPA) |
|
|
Term
| the Hypothalamus/Pituitary Axis (HPA) is responsible for the integration of the... |
|
Definition
| neuro and endocrine systems |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Anterior lobe of pituitary gland aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Posterior lobe of pituitary gland aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the hypothalamus regulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland (adenohypophysis) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the hypothalamus regulates the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland (neurohypophysis) |
|
Definition
neurologically
-this is actually a neural extension of the hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the pituitary gland and the hypothalamus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the anatomical and functional details of hypothalamic control of the posterior and anterior pituitary glands |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the hypothalamus makes the posterior pituitary release ADH and oxytocin into the bloodstream |
|
Definition
-neurologically
-each nucleus from the hypothalamus is used for one hormone or the other, not both
-the nerve terminals send the hormone into the blood stream
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the hypothalamus makes the anterior pituitary release anterior pituitary hormones into the bloodstream |
|
Definition
-neurologically within the hypothalamus
-portal venules carry hormones into the anterior pituitary
-these hormones regulate release of pituitary hormones into the secondary capillaries |
|
|
Term
| how the signal gets from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| Supraoptic & paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus produce two hormones which are transported down the hypothalamo-hypophyseal tract to the posterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
| how hormones from the posterior pituitary are released into the blood |
|
Definition
| When hypothalamic neurons are stimulated, their nerve endings in the posterior pituitary release these hormones into the general circulation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Uterine contractions during labor
-Contraction of mammary glands during lactation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effects of ADH aka vasopressin |
|
Definition
| Water reabsorption by the kidneys |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how ADH is involved in thirst and drinking |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 hormones you need to know that are released from the hypothalamus to control the anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
-corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
-thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) |
|
|
Term
| structure of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effect of corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) on the anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| stimulates secretion of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
|
|
Term
| structure of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| effect of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) on the anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
| stimulates secretion of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) |
|
|
Term
| details for how the hypothalamus controls the anterior pituitary |
|
Definition
-Various releasing and inhibiting hormones are produced in the hypothalamus
-Hypothalamic nerve endings secrete these hormones into a capillary/venule system known as the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system
-These hormones regulate the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones; these pituitary hormones then travel through the bloodstream to effector organs, including other endocrine glands |
|
|
Term
| the hypothalamo-hypophyseal portal system |
|
Definition
| the capillary-venule system that hypothalamic nerve endings secrete hormones into |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| causes the adrenal cortex to release certain steroid hormones, such as glucocorticoids |
|
|
Term
| one type of steroid hormone released by the adrenal cortex in response to ACTH |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| causes thyroid to release thyroid hormones, such as T3 and T4 or throxine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
suffix “-tropin”
-they have an endocrine role where they're going to cause some sort of endocrine function to happen, perhaps the release of another hormone that will go do its job
-these hormones also have a nutritive function, that is, growth effect for those target tissues |
|
|
Term
| Negative feedback-inhibition |
|
Definition
| a common theme in target gland-mediated regulation of the anterior pituitary and/or hypothalamus |
|
|
Term
| Higher brain centers can influence activity of ______, thus influencing... |
|
Definition
hypothalamic nuclei
downstream endocrine systems |
|
|
Term
| Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) |
|
Definition
| promotes production & secretion of T3 & T4 in the thyroid |
|
|
Term
| Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) |
|
Definition
| promotes secretion of glucocorticoids in the adrenal cortex |
|
|
Term
| the 2 components of the adrenal glands |
|
Definition
-adrenal medulla
-adrenal cortex |
|
|
Term
| hormones released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
-Epinephrine
-Norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| hormones released by the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
-Glucocorticoids
-Mineralocorticoids
-Sex steroids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Secretes epinephrine & norepinephrine into the blood
-Stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Secretes corticosteroids, or steroid hormones, into the blood
-Arranged into three layers, or zones
+Zona glomerulosa --> mineralocorticoids
+Zona fasciculata & zona reticularis --> glucocorticoids & sex steroids |
|
|
Term
| the three layers, or zones, of the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
-Zona glomerulosa --> mineralocorticoids
-Zona fasciculata & zona reticularis --> glucocorticoids & sex steroids
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the adrenal medulla is not controles by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| adrenal medulla controlled by... |
|
Definition
| sympathetic nervous system |
|
|
Term
| epinephrine & norepinephrine are in this group of hormones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Catecholamine hormones released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
-epinephrine
-norepinephrine |
|
|
Term
| some sympathoadrenal effects of the catecholamine hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
-Increase cardiac output
-Increase heart rate
-Dilate blood vessels to heart
-Increase alertness
-Increase respiratory rate
-Increase metabolic rate |
|
|
Term
| some metabolic effects of the catecholamine hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) released by the adrenal medulla |
|
Definition
-Increase glycogenolysis in the liver
-Increase lipolysis in the adipose tissue |
|
|
Term
| what epinephrine released from the adrenal medulla does |
|
Definition
| it mediates its effects at target tissues via activation of GPCRs that increase intracellular second messengers, such as cAMP and calcium |
|
|
Term
| some intracellular second messengers |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors that lead to increased intracellular cAMP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptors that lead to increased intracellular cytosolic calcium |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how epinephrine binding to beta-adrenergic receptors leads to increased intracellular cAMP |
|
Definition
[image]
beta-receptor --> G-protein --> adenylyl cyclase --> cAMPi --> protein kinase A --> other kinases --> downstream effects
-in this case, the alpha subunit interacts with the downstream effector |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how alpha-adrenergic receptors lead to increased cytosolic calcium concentration |
|
Definition
| [image]
alpha-receptor --> G-protein --> PLC --> IP3 --> Ca2+i --> Ca/calmodulin --> kinases --> downstream effects
-IP3 receptors are Ca channels on the endoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ca channels on the endoplasmic reticulum |
|
|
Term
| where in the cell Ca is usually stored |
|
Definition
| ER (sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells) |
|
|
Term
| why release of Ca into the cytosol leads to downstream events |
|
Definition
| because of Ca binding to calmodulin |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the metabolic effects of epinephrine in a liver cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the adrenal cortex is controlled by the... |
|
Definition
| the hypothalamic pituitary axis (HPA) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| steroids that regulate electrolytes, such as Na+ and K+ |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
steroids that regulate glucose and other metabolites (catabolic effects)
-also play a role in immune suppression & inhibition of inflammation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-layer of the adrenal cortex
-releases mineralocorticoids
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Zona fasciculata & zona reticularis |
|
Definition
-layers of the adrenal cortex
-release glucocorticoids & sex steroids
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how corticosteroids are made from cholesterol in the adrenal cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| weak androgens that supplement gonadal hormones |
|
|
Term
| an example of a mineralocorticoid |
|
Definition
| aldosterone, probably the most important mineralocorticoid |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a mineralocorticoid that increases Na+ and H2O retention as well as K+ excretion in the kidneys --> increases blood volume & pressure; balances electrolytes |
|
|
Term
| an example of a glucocorticoid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increases blood glucose levels by stimulating gluconeogenesis & inhibiting glucose utilization in the tissues; it also increases free fatty acid levels in the blood by stimulating lipolysis |
|
|
Term
| how cortisol increases blood glucose levels |
|
Definition
| by stimulating gluconeogenesis & inhibiting glucose utilization in the tissues |
|
|
Term
| how cortisol increases free fatty acid levels in the blood |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| steroids hydrophilic or hydrophobic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how steroids travel through the blood stream |
|
Definition
| by binding to “carrier proteins” |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| proteins steroids bind to so they can travel through the blood stream |
|
|
Term
| the effect of steroids on target organs |
|
Definition
-they bind to & activate intracellular nuclear hormone receptors, which then function as transcription factors (canonical “genomic” mechanism of action)
-they may also mediate non-genomic responses in target tissues |
|
|
Term
| the specific receptors steroids bind to |
|
Definition
| intracellular nuclear hormone receptors, which then function as transcription factors |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how steroids get through the blood to their target tissues |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the part of the receptor protein that binds to the steroid hormone |
|
Definition
| the ligand-binding domain |
|
|
Term
| for the hormone-bound receptor to act as a transcription factor, the monomers have to... |
|
Definition
come together to form a homodimer
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the pair of receptor proteins that join to act as a transcription factor
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis: negative feedback control |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the hormones released by the thyroid gland |
|
Definition
| -Thyroid hormone (T3, T4)
-Calcitonin |
|
|
Term
| Thyroid hormone (T3, T4) released by which cells in the thyroid gland? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| role of Thyroid hormone (T3, T4) |
|
Definition
-Regulation of body metabolism
-Regulation of growth & development, particularly the brain |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the follicles in the thyroid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| secretion of Thyroid hormone (T3, T4) stimulated by... |
|
Definition
| TSH released from the anterior pituitary |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Regulation of blood calcium levels |
|
|
Term
| calcitonin secreted by which cells in the thyroid? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thyrotropin-releasing hormone |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thyroid-stimulating hormone |
|
|
Term
| how the thyroid hormones (T3, T4) are produced |
|
Definition
-Hypothalamus secretes TRH (thyrotropin-releasing hormone) --> anterior pituitary secretes TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone) --> thyroid gland secretes T3 & T4
-Thyroid follicular cells transport iodide from the blood into the colloid
-Iodine is attached to tyrosine residues on thyroglobulin (MIT & DIT)
[image] |
|
|
Term
| difference between thyroid hormones T3, T4 |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| T4; about 20 times more of it |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how thyroid hormones are produced in and released from the follicles |
|
Definition
[image]
you don't need to know the names of any of these enzymes |
|
|
Term
| thyroid hormone T4 aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| thyroxine-binding globulin
-this is the carrier-protein for T4 in blood |
|
|
Term
| thyroid hormones hydrophilic or hydrophobic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| specific details on how thyroid hormone is produced and released |
|
Definition
| [image]
1: follicular cell synthesizes enzymes and thyroglobulin for colloid
2: a Na+-I- symporter brings I- into the cell. The pendrin transporter moves I-into the colloid.
3: enzymes add iodine to tyrosine to make T3 and T4
4: thyroglobulin is taken back into the cell in vesicles
5: intracellular enzymes separate T3 and T4 from the protein
6: free T3 and T4 enter circulation |
|
|
Term
| thyroid hormones T3 and T4 are derivatives of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| thyroid hormones T3 and T4 diffuse through... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| target tissues of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 |
|
Definition
-liver
-skeletal and cardiac muscles
-bones
-brain |
|
|
Term
| effect of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 on the liver |
|
Definition
| promotes glucose metabolism & gluconeogenesis |
|
|
Term
| effect of thyroid hormones T3 and T4 on the skeletal and cardiac muscles, bones, and brain |
|
Definition
| promotes normal growth & development |
|
|
Term
| the active form of thyroid hormone within the cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the mechanism of action for thyroid hormone |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the Hypothalamo-pituitary-thyroid axis |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when hormones have a nourishing effect on their target tissues |
|
|
Term
| 2 types of effects TSH has on the thyroid |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some conditions that can result from thyroid dysfunction |
|
Definition
-hypothyroid
-hyperthyroid
-goiter |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| decreased levels of T4 in blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| increased levels of T4 in blood |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| abnormal growth of the thyroid gland |
|
|
Term
| types of goiter that can occur |
|
Definition
-iodine insufficiency (endemic goiter)
-Grave's disease (toxic goiter) |
|
|
Term
| endemic goiter caused by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some details about iodine insufficiency (endemic goiter) |
|
Definition
Hypothyroid condition
Low levels of circulating T4 --> no negative feedback on anterior pituitary --> elevated TSH --> trophic effects on thyroid gland --> goiter |
|
|
Term
| some details about Grave's disease (toxic goiter) |
|
Definition
Hyperthyroid condition
Autoantibodies mimic TSH effects at thyroid --> excessive T4 in blood, but autoantibodies circumvent normal negative feedback loop --> goiter |
|
|
Term
| the pathway by which lack of iodine leads to goiters |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how Graves's disease leads to goiter |
|
Definition
| [image]
-notice that the antibody activates the receptor; it's an agonist
-this is a constant trophic effect that leads to producing too much T4 |
|
|
Term
| the types of muscle in the human body |
|
Definition
-skeletal
-smooth
-cardiac
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the muscles tat do not have striations |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what causes striations in skeletal and cardiac muscle? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what all muscle types have in common |
|
Definition
-Contraction occurs by sliding of actin & myosin filaments
-Excitation/contraction coupling relies on increases in intracellular calcium |
|
|
Term
| Contraction occurs in all muscle types by... |
|
Definition
| sliding of actin & myosin filaments |
|
|
Term
| Excitation/contraction coupling in all muscle types relies on... |
|
Definition
| increases in intracellular calcium |
|
|
Term
| some general details about skeletal muscles |
|
Definition
-Sarcomere is the smallest contractile unit, giving it a striated (striped) appearance
-Control by somatic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
| some general details about cardiac muscles |
|
Definition
-Sarcomere is the smallest contractile unit, giving it a striated (striped) appearance
-Pacemaker cells: automatic rhythmic action potentials & contractions
-Regulation of strength & frequency of contraction by autonomic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
| some general details about smooth muscles |
|
Definition
-No sarcomeres; no striated appearance
-Control by autonomic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| smallest contractile unit of muscle cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
serially-repeating sarcomeres (a single muscle cell contains many myofibrils)
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bundle of muscle fibers
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
bundle of fasciculi
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| plasma membrane of a muscle cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cytoplasm of a muscle cell |
|
|
Term
| SARCOPLASMIC RETICULUM (SR) |
|
Definition
| specialized endoplasmic reticulum of a muscle cell |
|
|
Term
| possibly the only cell type in the adult human body with multiple nuclei |
|
Definition
| muscle cells (they're polynucleated) |
|
|
Term
| Muscle cells appear striated due to... |
|
Definition
| dark & light banding pattern of sarcomeres |
|
|
Term
| general anatomy of a muscle cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some components to how skeletal muscles work |
|
Definition
-The motor unit
-The neuromuscular junction
-Excitation/contraction coupling
-Sarcomere structure & the sliding filament model of contraction |
|
|
Term
| A motor unit is comprised of... |
|
Definition
a single motor neuron (alpha-motor neuron) and all of the muscle fibers (cells) it innervates
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of a motor unit |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the number of muscle cells innervated by a single motor neuron varies depending on... |
|
Definition
-the motor neuron you look at
-the part of the body is being controlled |
|
|
Term
| A typical motor neuron innervates how many muscle cells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| One muscle cell is typically innervated by how many motor neurons? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A ______ is comprised of many motor units |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| All muscle fibers in the same motor unit are of the same type, characterized by... |
|
Definition
-speed
-strength
-fatigability |
|
|
Term
| example of a muscle controlled by many motor neurons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of a muscle controlled by fewer motor neurons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| how quickly a muscle tires out |
|
|
Term
| neuromuscular junction (NMJ) |
|
Definition
| specialized synapse between the somatic motor neuron’s nerve terminal and the motor end plate of the skeletal muscle cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
small piece of plasma membrane on the skeletal muscle that receives the signal from the terminal of the motor neuron
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the neuromuscular junction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how neurons stimulate muscle cells |
|
Definition
| An action potential propagated by the motor neuron typically results in an action potential across the muscle cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| excitation/contraction (E/C) coupling |
|
Definition
| Transformation of this electrical signal (in the muscle cell) into contraction of sarcomeres |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| composition of the sarcolemma |
|
Definition
-T (transverse)-tubules invaginate the myofibrils
-T-tubules are continuous with the sarcolemma
[image] |
|
|
Term
| composition of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) |
|
Definition
-Terminal cisternae are closely apposed to the T-tubules
-The SR surrounds myofibrils as a network of interconnected sarcotubules
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-part of the sarcolemma
-invaginate the myofibrils
-continuous with the sarcolemma
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-part of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
-closely apposed to the T-tubules
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
A subunit of striated muscle fiber that consists of successive sarcomeres. Myofibrils run parallel to the long axis of the muscle fiber, and the pattern of their filaments provides the striations characteristic of striated muscle cells.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how excitation/contraction coupling occurs at the neuromuscular junction |
|
Definition
[image]
-not shown in the picture, but the Na channels are expressed all over the membrane of that sarcolemma |
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the receptor acetylcholine binds to at the motor-end plate |
|
Definition
| nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| dihydropyridine receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 proteins that are critical for E/C coupling |
|
Definition
-dihydropyridine receptors (DHPRs)
-ryanodine receptors (RyRs) |
|
|
Term
| dihydropyridine receptors (DHPRs) |
|
Definition
integral membrane protein that's inserted into the membrane of the sarcolemma within the T-tubules
[image] |
|
|
Term
| ryanodine receptors (RyRs) |
|
Definition
integral membrane protein inserted into the membranes of those terminal cisternae, which are part of the SR that lie very close to the T-tubules
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the physical coupling of the dihydropyridine receptors (DHPRs) and ryanodine receptors (RyRs) and what it does |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the sequence of events that leads to muscle contraction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A single muscle cell contains many... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| A myofibril is comprised of... |
|
Definition
| serially-repeating sarcomeres --> striated appearance |
|
|
Term
| the smallest contractile unit of a muscle cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the filaments in a sarcomere |
|
Definition
-Thin filaments: actin
-Thick filaments: myosin |
|
|
Term
| Sarcomeres shorten during muscle contraction (with or without) a change in length of their filaments |
|
Definition
without
“sliding filament model” of muscle contraction |
|
|
Term
| the thin filaments in a sarcomere are based on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the thick filaments in a sarcomere are based on... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of the components of the sarcomere |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 proteins in the thin (F-actin) filaments |
|
Definition
-tropomyosin
-troponin
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the thin (F-actin) filaments attach to this, which is the boundary of the sarcomere
[image] |
|
|
Term
| role of tropomyosin and troponin |
|
Definition
| they detect changes in the Ca concentration, which leads to conformational changes in the thin (F-actin) filament |
|
|
Term
| the role of the head groups at the end of the thick (myosin) filaments |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the sarcomere shorten |
|
Definition
| the thin (F-actin) filaments and thick (myosin) filaments slide past each other |
|
|
Term
| depiction of how all the filaments and everything else are oriented within a sarcomere |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the length of a thick filament
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-traverses 2 neighboring sarcomeres
-has the Z disc in the middle of it with thin filament on either side with no overlapping thick filament within the I band
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the portion of the thick filaments that doesn't have any overlapping thin filaments
-it's essentially the very center of a sarcomere where you've only got thick filaments
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
acts as a spring like connector between the Z discs and the start of those thick filaments
[image] |
|
|
Term
| depiction of The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Muscle contraction means shortening of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Shortening of muscle cells results from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Shortening of myofibrils means... |
|
Definition
movement of Z-discs closer to one another
[image] |
|
|
Term
| The sarcomeres shorten via... |
|
Definition
sliding of thin filaments over thick filaments
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the bands in a myofibril that do not shorten during muscle contraction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the bands in a myofibril that shorten during muscle contraction |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Each myosin head group has |
|
Definition
-an ATP-binding domain
-an actin-binding domain
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Myosin heads will bind actin (thin filaments) only... |
|
Definition
in the presence of Ca
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the 2 positions myosin head groups can exist in |
|
Definition
-“cocked” position, relative to actin, or a
-“flexed” position, relative to actin
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
causes the sliding of thin filaments across thick filaments
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
molecular mechanism of the sliding filament model
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what happens when cross-bridges attach to actin? |
|
Definition
-power-strokes occur
-muscles contract |
|
|
Term
| In ______ muscle, the myosin/actin interaction is inhibited |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the grooves of the actin filament |
|
|
Term
| why the myosin/actin interaction is inhibited in relaxed muscle |
|
Definition
| because tropomyosin, being in the groove of the actin filament, blocks the association of myosin with actin filaments |
|
|
Term
| the 3 differrent subunits of troponin |
|
Definition
-Troponin I
-Troponin T
-Troponin C |
|
|
Term
| the C in Troponin C stands for... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the sequence of events that leads to the binding of myosin with actin in a stimulated muscle |
|
Definition
| Stimulated muscle: Ca interacts with troponin C --> tropomyosin moves --> myosin associates with actin |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the troponin and tropomyosin associated with the actin filament |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| depiction of how Ca causes E/C coupling & cross-bridge attachment |
|
Definition
[image]
troponin bound to Ca pushes the tropomyosin out of the way |
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Term
| Muscle action potential results in the release of... |
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Definition
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Term
| Intracellular Ca binds to ______, leading to a shift in the ______ molecules, thus allowing for... |
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Definition
troponin
tropomyosin
cross-bridge attachment (myosin/actin interactions)
[image] |
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Term
| Multiple ______ lead to muscle contraction |
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Definition
| cross-bridge cycles (power strokes) |
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Term
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Definition
| the smallest “quantum” of contraction: it’s the response of a muscle to a single action potential |
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Term
| As action potential frequency increases, the muscle response is called... |
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Definition
summation, unfused (incomplete) tetanus, or fused (complete) tetanus
[image] |
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Term
| depiction of types of muscle contractions and what they mean |
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Definition
| [image]
-Panel A: relatively few cross-bridges form; Ca2+i returns to baseline
-Panels B & C: force (and Ca2+i) does not return to baseline between successive twitches; more cross-bridges form
-Panel D: individual twitches cannot be distinguished; maximal cross-bridge activation (not a physiological state) |
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Term
| Individual motor units respond with ______ & sometimes ______ to make muscle contractions in vivo |
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Definition
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Term
| whole-muscle movements are generally smooth & sustained, in large part due to... |
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Definition
| asynchronous activation of multiple motor units |
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Term
| Contraction strength vs. the number of motor units |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
when the muscle fiber stays the same length because of the weight being lifted is the same as the force applied to it
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| activation of more motor units to make a muscle contraction |
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Term
| some things that affect the strength of contraction |
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Definition
-Number of fibers
-Frequency of stimulation
-Myofiber thickness
-Length of myofibers at rest |
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Term
| depiction of the relationship between force and velocity of muscle fiber shortening |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
contraction in which the muscle fiber shortens while doing work
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
lengthening of the muscle fiber while it is still doing work
[image] |
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Term
| how muscle relaxation is an active process |
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Definition
| because ATP is used to move Ca out of the cytosol |
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Term
| depiction of some ways muscles make and use ATP |
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Definition
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Term
| some things muscles use ATP for |
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Definition
| -they use Myosin ATPases for contraction
-they use Ca2+-ATPases --> relaxation |
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Term
| some ways muscles make ATP |
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Definition
-aerobic respiration
-anaerobic respiration
-phosphocreatine
[image] |
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Term
| aerobic respiration in muscles uses... |
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Definition
oxidative phosphorylation (mitochondria)
[image] |
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Term
| anaerobic respiration in muscles uses... |
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Definition
glycogenolysis and fermentation to lactate
[image] |
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Term
| some things that determine where the ATP in a muscle comes from |
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Definition
-muscle type
-activity the muscle engages in |
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Term
| when muscles are more likely to use aerobic respiration |
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Definition
when doing light work
[image] |
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Term
| when muscles are more likely to use anaerobic respiration |
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Definition
when doing heavy work, when aerobic respiration alone isn't enough
[image] |
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Term
| things that lead to muscle fatigue |
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Definition
| Repeated activation of muscle fibers --> depletion of energy stores --> muscle fatigue |
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Term
| Factors contributing to muscle fatigue |
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Definition
| -Depletion of muscle glycogen stores
-Lactic acid accumulation
-Impaired E/C coupling (decreased release of Ca2+ from SR) |
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Term
| some things that can result from muscle fatigue |
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Definition
-Decreased force production
-Reduced rate of rise of force
-Longer time to relax |
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Term
| the types of motor units vary by... |
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Definition
-Speed of contraction
-Strength of contraction
-Fatigability |
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Term
| the 3 types of motor units in your muscles |
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Definition
-SLOW (Type I)
-FAST FATIGUE-RESISTANT (Type IIA)
-FAST FATIGABLE (Type IIX) |
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Term
| some characteristics of SLOW (Type I) muscles |
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Definition
-“Red fibers”
-Slow oxidative fibers
-Smaller diameter & less myosin --> less forceful contractions
-Fatigue-resistant
-High oxidative capacity
+Large capillary supply
+Many mito’s & oxphos enzymes
+High concentration of myoglobin (Mb) |
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Term
| why SLOW (Type I) muscle has high oxidative capacity |
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Definition
-Large capillary supply
-Many mito’s & oxphos enzymes
-High concentration of myoglobin (Mb) |
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Term
| some characteristics of FAST FATIGUE-RESISTANT (Type IIA) muscles |
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Definition
-“Red fibers”
-Fast oxidative fibers
-Medium diameter & more myosin --> intermediate forcefulness
-Fatigue-resistant
-Relatively high oxidative capacity |
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Term
| some characteristics of FAST FATIGABLE (Type IIX) muscles |
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Definition
-“White fibers”
-Fast glycolytic fibers
-Large diameter & more myosin --> greatest force
-Fatigue quickly
-Low oxidative capacity (anaerobic respiration)
+Fewer capillaries & mito’s, less Mb
+Increased glycogen stores
+Increased concentration of glycolytic enzymes |
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Term
| why FAST FATIGABLE (Type IIX) muscles have low oxidative capacity (anaerobic respiration) |
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Definition
-Fewer capillaries & mito’s, less Mb
-Increased glycogen stores
-Increased concentration of glycolytic enzymes |
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Term
| depiction of what twitches and tetanus look like in the different types of muscle fibers |
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Definition
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Term
| some components of the nervous system that control skeletal muscle |
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Definition
-Proprioceptors in musculature
-Spinal interneurons
-Lower motor neurons
-Corticospinal (pyramidal) tract
-Extrapyramidal tract |
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Term
| some proprioceptors in musculature |
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Definition
-Muscle spindle apparatus
-Golgi tendon organs |
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Term
| some lower motor neurons that come out of the spinal cord |
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Definition
-alpha-motoneurons
-gamma-motoneurons |
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Term
| components of the corticospinal (pyramidal) tract |
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Definition
-Motor cortex
-Spinal cord |
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Term
| components of the extrapyramidal tract |
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Definition
-Cerebral cortex
-Thalamus / basal ganglia / cerebellum
-Brain stem
-Spinal cord |
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Term
| depiction of the neural circuits that control skeletal muscle |
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Definition
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Term
| some descending tracts involved in control of skeletal muscle |
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Definition
-Corticospinal (pyramidal) tract
-Extrapyramidal tract |
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Term
| corticospinal tract originates in... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
the "somatic" motorneurons
-innervation of extrafusal muscle fibers |
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Term
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Definition
| innervation of intrafusal muscle fibers |
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Term
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Definition
| they make connections in the spinal cord between the alpha- and gamma-motorneurons |
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Term
| function of muscle spindle apparatus |
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Definition
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Term
| some details about the muscle spindle apparatus |
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Definition
-Located on intrafusal muscle fibers
-Muscle stretch --> spindle stretch --> stimulation of sensory neurons
-Increased length of muscle --> increased A.P. frequency |
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Term
| function of the lower motor neurons |
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Definition
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Term
| the muscle spindle apparatus senses... |
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Definition
| the stretch of the spindle apparatus |
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Term
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Definition
| the rodlike muscle cells that engage in contraction |
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Term
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Definition
-part of the spindle apparatus
-not required for muscles to contract
-important for resetting the tension on the muscle spindle apparatus |
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Term
| depiction of the muscle spindle apparatus |
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Definition
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Term
| the reflex to a stretch is... |
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Definition
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Term
| how gamma-fibers reset the tension on the muscle spindle apparatus |
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Definition
| in response to stretches, they release acetylcholine, leading to excitatory input on the muscle spindle apparatus to reset the tension |
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Term
| an example of a monosynaptic stretch reflex |
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Definition
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Term
| depiction of the knee-jerk reflex |
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Definition
[image]
-not shown, but there's also gamma-motorneurons here that reach out to the intrafusal fibers on the muscle spindle apparatus and cause it to contract and return to a resting tension |
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Term
| why the knee-jerk reaction is considered monosynaptic |
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Definition
| because there's only 1 synapse responsible for making this happen |
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Term
| an example of reciprocal innervation |
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Definition
| agonist/antagonist muscles |
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Term
| depiction of agonist/antagonist muscles |
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Definition
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Term
| why interneurons are often inhibitory |
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Definition
| because they're GAB-ergic |
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Term
| example of double reciprocal innervation |
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Definition
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Term
| depiction of the crossed-extensor reflex |
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Definition
|
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Term
| the type of event the crossed-extensor reflex is |
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Definition
a nociceptive event; it involves nociceptors
[image] |
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