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| a concept first brought into wide usage in sociology by Durkheim, referring to a situation in which social norms lose their hold over individual behavior |
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| a renewed emphasis on crime prevention rather than law enforcement to reintegrate policing within the community |
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| argument that deviance is deliberately chosen and often political in nature |
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| a theory that views crime as the outcome of an imbalance between impulses toward criminal activity and controls that deter it. Control theorists hold that criminals are rational beings who will act to maximize their own reward unless they are rendered unable to do so through either social or physical controls. |
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| offenses committed by large corporations in society. Examples include pollution, false advertising, and violations of health and safety regulations |
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| any action that contravenes the laws established by a political authority. Although we may think of criminals as a distinct subsection of the population, there are few people who have not broken the law in one way or another during their lives. While laws are formulated by state authorities, it is not unknown for those authorities to engage in criminal behavior in certain situations |
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| modes of action that do not conform to the norms or values held by most members of a group or society. What is regarded as deviant is as variable as the norms and values that distinguish different cultures and subcultures from one another. Forms of behavior that are highly esteemed by one group are regarded negatively by others |
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| a subculture whose members hold valuues that differ substantially from those of the majority |
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| an interpretation of the development of crimianl behavior proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland, according to whom criminal behavior is learned through association with others who regularly engage in crime |
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| an approach to the study of deviance that suggests that people become "deviant" because certain labels are attached to their behavior by political authorities and others |
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| a rule of behavior established by a political authority and backed by state power |
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| a branch of criminological thought, prominent in Britain in the 1970s, that regarded deviance as deliberately chosen and often political in nature. The new criminologists argued that crime and deviance could only be understood in the context of power and inequality within society |
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| rules of conduct that specify appropriate behavior in a given range of social situations. A norm either prescribes a given type of behavior or forbids it. All groups follow definate norms, which are always backed by sanctions of one kind or another - varying from informal disapproval to physical punishment |
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| criminal activities carried out by organizations established as businesses |
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| according to Edwin Lemert, the actions that cause other to label one as deviant |
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| a specific personality type; such individuals lack the moral sense and concern for others held by most normal people |
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| a mode of reward or punishment that reinforces socially expected forms of behavior |
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| according to Edwin Lemert, following the act of primary deviation, occurs when an individual accepts the label of deviant and acts accordingly |
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| a way of punishing criminal and deviant behavior based on rituals of public disapproval rather than incarceration. The goal is to maintain the ties of the offender to the community |
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| criminal activities carried out by those in white-collar, or professional, jobs |
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| the minimal requirements necessary to sustain a healthy existence |
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| people who own companies, land, or stock (shares) and use these to generate economic returns |
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| a society in which different social levels are closed, so that all individuals must remain at the social level of their birth throught life |
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| a social system in which one's social status is given for life |
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| although it is one of the most frequently used concepts in sociology, there is no clear agreement about how the notion should be defined. Most sociologists use the term to refer to socioeconomic variations between groups of individuals that create variations in their material prosperity and power |
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| the thesis, popularized by Oscar Lewis, that poverty is not a result of individual inadequencies but is instead the outcome of a larger social and cultural atmosphere into which successive generations of children are socialized. Refers to the values, beliefs, lifestyles, habits, and tradtions that are common among people living under conditions of material deprivation |
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| a term popularized by Charles Murray to describe individuals who rely on state welfare provision rather than entering the labor market. Is seen as the outcome of the "paternalistic" welfare state that undermines individual ambition and people's capacity for self-help |
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| the forbidding of marriage or sexaul relations outside one's social group |
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| the exchange of positions on the socioeconomic scale such that talented people move up the economic hierarchy while the less talented move down |
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| an increase in the proportion of the poor who are female |
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| people who have no place to sleep and either stay in free shelters or sleep in public places not meant for habitation |
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| payment, usually derived from wages, salaries, or investments |
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| Intergenerational Mobility |
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| movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy from one generation to another |
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| Intragenerational Mobility |
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| movement up or down a social stratification hierarchy within the course of a personal career |
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| a formula showing that inequality increases during the early stages of capitalist development, then declines, and eventually stabilizes at a relatively low level; advanced by the economist Simon Kuznets |
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| a term introduced by Max Weber to signify a person's opportunities for achieving economic prosperity |
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| a social class comprised of those who work part time or not at all and whose household income is typically lower than $17,000 a year |
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| a program under the U.S. Social Security Administration the reimburses hospitals and physicians for medical care provided to qualifying people over sixty-five years old |
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| the means whereby the production of material goods is carried on in a society, including not just technology but the social relations between producers |
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| a social class composed broadly of those working in white-collar and lower managerial occupations |
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| groups who suffer from negative status discrimination - they are looked down on by most other members of society. The Jews, for example, have been a pariah group throughout much of European history |
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| an official government measure to define those living in poverty in the United States |
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| poverty defined according to the living standards of the majority in any given society |
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| Short-Range Downward Mobility |
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| social mobility that occurs when an idividual moves from one position in the class structure to another of nearly equal status |
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| a form of social stratification in which some people are literally owned by others as their property |
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| the outcome of multiple deprivations that prevent individuals or groups from participating fully in the economic, social, and political life of the society in which they live |
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| movement of individuals or groups between different social positions |
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| a government program that provides economic assistance to persons faced with unemployment, disability, or agedness |
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| the existence of structured inequalities between groups in society, in terms of their access to material or symbolic rewards |
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| the social honor or prestige that a particular group is accorded by other members of a society |
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| mobility resulting from change in the number and kinds of jobs available in a society |
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| social inequalities that result from patterns in the social structure |
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| the value of a workers's labor power, in Marxist theory, left over when an employer has repaid the cost of hiring the worker |
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| a class of individuals situated at the bottom of the class system, normally composed of people from ethnic minority backgrounds |
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| a social class broadly composed of the more affluent members of society, especially those who have inherited wealth, own businesses, or hold large numbers of stocks (shares) |
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| movement up or down a hierarchy of positions in a social stratification system |
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| money and material possessions held by an individual or group |
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| a social class broadly composed of people working in blue-collar, or manual, occupations |
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| people who work, but whose earnings are not enough to lift them above the poverty line |
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| a strand of feminist theory that highlights the multiple disadvantanges of gender, class, and race that shape the experiences of nonwhite women |
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| policies that attempt to remedy pay gap by adjusting pay so that those in female dominated jobs are not paid less for equvialent work |
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| a sociological perspective that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyizing the social world and particularly the uniqueness of the experience of women |
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| social expectations about behavior regarded as appropriate for the members of each sex |
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| the inequality bewteen men and women in terms of wealth, income, and status |
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| the learning of gender roles through social factors such as schooling, the media, and family |
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| women holding occupations of lower status and pay, such as secretarial and retail positions, and men holding jobs of higher status and pay, such as managerial and professional positions |
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| a promotion barrier that prevents a woman's upward mobility within an organization |
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| the process by which men in traditionally female professions benefit from an unfair rapid rise within an organization |
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| form of feminist theory that believes that gender inequality is produced by unequal acces to civil rights and certain social resources, such as education and employment, based on sex |
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| the dominance of men over women |
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| form of feminist theory that believes the gender inequality is the result of male domination in all aspects of social and economic life |
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| the forcing of nonconsensual vaginal, oral, or anal intercourse |
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| the biological and anatomical differences distinguishing females from males |
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| the making of unwanted sexual advances by one individual toward another, in which the first person persists even though it is clear that the other party is resistant |
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| Social Construction of Gender |
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| the learning of gender roles through socialization and interaction with others |
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| the system of racial segregation established in South Africa |
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| the acceptance of minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture |
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| the dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas, often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances |
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| behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others |
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| the transferring of ideas or emotions from their true source to another object |
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| the movement of people out of one country in order to settle in another |
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| the creation of ethnically homogeneous territories through the mass expulsion of other ethnic populations |
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| cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others |
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| the systematic, planned destruction of a radical, political, or cultural group |
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| the movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement |
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| patterns of discrimination based on ethnicity that have become structured into existing social institutions |
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| the idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources |
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| a group of people in a minority in a given society who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality within that society |
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| ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life |
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| a model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in the United States retain their independent and separate identities, yet share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship |
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| the holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information |
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| differences in human physical characteristics used to catergorize large numbers of individuals |
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| the skills taught to children of multicultural families to help them cope with racial hierarchies and to integrate multiple ethnic identities |
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| the process by which understandings of race are used to classify individuals or groups of people |
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| the attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics |
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| an individual or group blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing |
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| the practices of keeping racial and ethnic groups physically separate, thereby maintaining the superior position of the dominant group |
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