Term
|
Definition
| Only 1% of solar energy powers plat growth, and a still smaller amount flows from plants into the organisms that earth them and the organisms that decompose dead organic matter. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Chemists currently recognize 92 elements occurring in nature as well as more than 20 others they have created in the lab. |
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Term
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Definition
| solutions in which contain the H+ concentration is greater than the OH- concentration. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Nitrogen (N), 78.1%; Oxygen (O), 21.0%; Argon (Ar), 0.9%; Other, <0.1% |
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Term
|
Definition
| Proteins that consist of long chains of organic molecules |
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Term
|
Definition
| Atoms bond together because of their attraction for one another's electrons. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The number of protons that the atom contains. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The smallest units that maintain the chemical properties of the element, and hold a defined number of protons (positively charged particles) in the atoms nucleus. |
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Term
| Autotrophs or Primary Producers |
|
Definition
| Organisms, such as green plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, that use the sun's radiation directly to produce their own food. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Solutions in which the OH- concentration exceeds the H+ concentration |
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Term
|
Definition
| The reactions created through the photosynthesis process produces the breathable oxygen. |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| In photosynthesis a series of chemical reactions in which carbon atoms from carbon dioxide are linked together to manufacture sugars. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Atoms of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen that are simple sugars which are three to seven carbon atoms long |
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Term
|
Definition
| One carbon atom bonded to two oxygen atoms; its chemical formula is CO2 |
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Term
|
Definition
| C6H12O6 (sugar) + 6O2 = CO2 + 6H20 + Energy |
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Term
|
Definition
| Organisms make use of the chemical energy created by photosynthesis, where the organism releases chemical energy of glucose, cells employ oxygen to convert glucose back into its original starting materials, water and carbon dioxide. |
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Term
| Cellular Respiration Energy |
|
Definition
| The energy released per glucose molecule in respiration is only two-thirds of the energy input per glucose molecule in photosynthesis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The most abundant organic compound on Earth, a complex carbohydrate found in the cell walls of leaves, bark, stems, and roots. |
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Term
|
Definition
| potential energy stored in the bonds between atoms. |
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Term
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Definition
| The examination of types of matter and some of the important ways they interact together. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A process that happens in deep underwater locations that completely lack sunlight where energy flows to communities of organisms. These organisms can not be fueled through photosynthesis. These bacteria in deep-sea vents use the chemical-bond energy of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) to transform inorganic carbon into organic carbon compounds. |
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Term
|
Definition
| 6CO2 + 6H20 + 3H2S = C6H1206 (sugar) + 3H2SO4 |
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Term
|
Definition
| A complex carbohydrate that crustaceans use to form their hard shells |
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Term
|
Definition
| A light-absorbing pigment which is a part of photosynthesis. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Photosynthesis occurs within cell organelles |
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Term
|
Definition
| Used by plants and animals. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Molecules that are composed of atoms of two or more different elements. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An isotope that has decayed at least half-life. |
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Term
| Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) |
|
Definition
| A double-stranded nucleic acid composed of four nucleotides that contain a sugar (deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA carries the hereditary information for organisms and are responsible for carrying traits from paretns to offspring. |
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Term
|
Definition
The elements of Earths crust are:
Oxygen (O), 49.5%; Silicon (Si), 25.7%; Aluminum (Al), 7.4%; Iron (Fe), 4.7%, Calcium (Ca), 3.6%; Sodium (Na), 2.8%; Potassium (K), 2.6%; Magnesium (Mg), 2.1%; Other, 1.6% |
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Term
|
Definition
| Negatively charged particles that surround the atom's nucleus, which balance the positive charge of the protons. |
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Term
|
Definition
| a fundamental type of matter, chemical substance with a given set of properties, which cannot be broken down into substances with other properties. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The capacity to change the position, physical composition, or temperature of matter. The force that can accomplish work. |
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Term
|
Definition
| At the atomic level, when a chemical bond is broken or formed. |
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Term
| Energy Conversion Efficiency |
|
Definition
| The degree of success in capturing energy by the ration of useful output of energy to the amount that we need to input. |
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Term
| Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) |
|
Definition
| A process to harness more power from more places by drilling more deeply, pumping in fluid that cracks the rocks and becomes readily heated, and then drawing up the heated fluid. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Systems tend to move toward increasing disorder. |
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Term
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Definition
| The broadest of scientific fields. |
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Term
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Definition
| protein molecules that catalyze, or promote, certain chemical reactions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The adding of another carbon atom and two more atoms to methane form the next simplest hydrocarbon. |
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Term
| Four Major Categories for Organic Compounds |
|
Definition
| Lipids, Carbohydrates, Proteins, Nucleic Acids |
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Term
|
Definition
| spouts of steam or other gases. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Regions of DNA coding for particular proteins that perform a particular function. |
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Term
|
Definition
| From the Greed geo for Earth and therme for heat, is thermal energy from below Earths surface. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Helps cut down on pollution, mitigate climate change, and help assure us long-lasting energy supplies into the future. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Arises from the interplay of rock, water, and heat. It involves geology, chemistry, and energy, and it is a process that takes place on a large scale. |
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Term
| Geothermal heating at the Geysers |
|
Definition
| The ongoing radioactive decay of elements such as uranium, potassium, and thorium deep within earth emits heat that travels slowly upward toward Earths surface, heating rock and water along the way and eventually being released to the atmosphere. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A location where hot water and steam spout out of the ground, forced up naturally by pressure (Engineers tapped into this energy source. The rocks deep underground get so hot that the water turns to steam, which can produce enough electricity to power nearly a million homes. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The geothermally heated water that rises up as steam is made up of hydrogen and oxygen, each of which is an element. |
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Term
|
Definition
| fuels living cells and serves as a building block for complex carbohydrates. |
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Term
|
Definition
| This is the rate at which radioisotopes decay, and the amount of time it takes for one-half the atoms to give off radiation and decay. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Heating weakens hydrogen bonds before it speeds molecular motion, so water can absorb a great deal of heat with only small changes in its temperature. This helps stabilize water bodies, organisms, and climate systems. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Organisms that gain their energy by feeding on other organisms. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Atoms of carbon and hydrogen. Fossil fuels and many petroleum products consist largely of hydrocarbons. |
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Term
| Hydrogen and Hydroxide Ion |
|
Definition
| The product of hydrogen and hydroxide ion concentrations is always the same; as one increases, the other decreases. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Two atoms of hydrogen share electrons equally as they bind together to form hydrogen gas, H2. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| An area of the earth where hosts of entire communities of specialized organisms thrive in the extreme high-temperature, high-pressure conditions, such as gigantic clams, immense tubeworms, odd mussels; similarly shrimps, crabs, and fish can exist in seemingly hostile environment near scalding water that shoots out of tall chimneys of encrusted minerals. |
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Term
|
Definition
| the molecules in ice are farther apart than in liquid water, so ice is less dense. This enables ice to float on water, insulating lakes and ponds and preventing them from freezing solid in winter. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Ions are denoted by their elemental symbol followed by their ionic charge. Ca2+ |
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Term
|
Definition
| The association between compounds in which the strength of attraction is sufficiently unequal, an electron may be transferred from one atom to another, creating oppositely charged ions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The gaining or losing of electrons from the Atom, which then become electrically charged atoms or combinations of atoms. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Atoms of the same element with differing numbers of neutrons, which have the same atomic number, yet different mass numbers, and denoted by their elemental symbol preceded by the mass number. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Isotopes are denoted by their elemental symbol preceded by the mass number (i.e. 14C (carbon -14) |
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Term
| James Watson, Frances Crick, Maurice Wilkins |
|
Definition
| They all shared the Nobel Peace Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1962. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Energy of motion, which can express itself as thermal energy, light energy, sound energy, or electrical energy; all which involve the movement of atoms, subatomic particles, molecules or objects. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The heavier hydrocarbons are liquids, whereas those containing over 20 carbon atoms are normally solids. |
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|
Term
| Law of Conservation of Matter |
|
Definition
| Matter may be transformed from one type of substance into others, but it can not be created or destroyed. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Solar energy that is used to initiate a series of chemical reactions. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Photosynthesis is an example of moving toward a state of lower entropy, and as such it requires a substantial input of outside energy. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Certain molecules that are chemically diverse compounds such as fats, oils, and waxes, that do not dissolve in water, and are macro because of their larger size. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Air in the atmosphere, ocean water, plant sap, petroleum, and metal alloys such as brass. |
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Term
|
Definition
| this represents the combined number of protons and neutrons in the tom. |
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Term
|
Definition
| All material in the universe that has mass and occupies space - solid, liquid, and gas alike. Matter is neither created nor destroyed. It is recycled endlessly. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Energy that may be stored in a compressed spring. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The simplest hydrocarbon. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Atoms that bond together form molecules, combinations of two or more atoms. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Particles that lack an electrical charge. |
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Term
|
Definition
| A potential energy that holds atomic nuclei together |
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Term
|
Definition
| direct the production of proteins. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
The elements of the Oceans are:
Oxygen (O) 88.3%; Hydrogen (H), 11.0%; Chlorine (CI), 1.9%; Sodium (Na), 1.1%; Magnesium (Mg), 0.1%; Sulfur (S), 0.1%; Calcium (Ca, <0.1%; Potassium (K), <0.1%; Bromine (Br), <0.1% |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When the compounds in which the strength of attraction is sufficiently unequal, an electron may be transferred from one atom to another, creating oppositely charged ions. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Carbon atoms (and generally hydrogen atoms) joined by bonds, and they may also include other elements, such as nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Oxygen (O), 65.0%; Carbon (C(), 18.5%; Hydrogen (H), 9.5%; Nitrogen (N), 3.3%; Calcium (Ca), 1.5%; Phosphorus (P), 1.0%; Potassium (K), 0.4%; Sulfur (S), 0.3%; Other, 0.5% |
|
|
Term
| Periodic Table of the Elements |
|
Definition
| A table that organizes the elements according to their chemical properties and behavior. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| This scale quantifies the acidity or alkalinity of solutions. It runs from 0 to 14 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Every increment on the pH scale indicates 10 times as many hydrogen ions as a substance with pH of 7. 7 being neutral. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| A process whereby autotrophs turn light energy from the sun into chemical energy. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 6CO2 + 12H20 + Solar Energy = C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H20 |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The sunlight powers a series of chemical reactions that convert carbon dioxide and water into sugars, transforming diffuse energy from the sun into concentrated energy the organism can use. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| synthetic polymers such as polyethylene, polypropylene, polyurethane, and polystyrene; Nylon, Teflon, Kevlar |
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|
Term
| Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons |
|
Definition
| PAHs can evaporate from spilled oil and gasoline and can mix with water, putting the eggs and young of fish and other aquatic creatures at risk. |
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Term
|
Definition
| When carbon atoms bond together in long chains, the resulting molecule is a polymer. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Principle of Environmental Science |
|
Definition
| Helps us understand that the amount of matter stays constant as it is recycled in nutrient cycles and ecosystems. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Proteins serve various functions; some help produce tissues and provide structural support, such as to generate skin, hair, muscles, and tendons. Other proteins help generate energy, some transport substances; some act in the immune system to defend against foreign attackers; other proteins are hormones that act as chemical messengers with an organism. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Pure water has the pH value of 7. solutions with pH less than 7 are acidic and those with pH greater are basic. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Some isotopes are radioactive and "decay", change in their chemical identity as they shed subatomic particles and emit high-energy radiation. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Radioisotopes decay into a lighter and lighter radioisotopes, until they become stable isotopes. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Renewable energy is being investigated, using the sun, the wind, waves and geothermal energy. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Usually a single stranded nucleic acid composed of four nucleotides, each that contains a sugar (ribos) a phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. RNA also carries hereditary information for living organisms and is responsible for passing traits from parents to offspring. |
|
|
Term
| Second Law of Thermodynamics |
|
Definition
| The nature of energy will change from a more ordered state to a less-ordered state, as long as no force counteracts this tendency. |
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Term
|
Definition
| An element that is especially abundant on our planet (Earths crust) |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| Hydrogen (H2) and Oxygen (O2), each of which exists as a gas at room temperature. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the smallest hydrocarbon are those that consist of four or fewer carbon atoms, and exist in a gaseous state at moderate temperatures and pressures. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| drives winds, ocean currents, weather, and climate patterns. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| elements, molecules, and compounds coming together in mixtures without chemically bonding or reacting. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Isotopes that are not radioactive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ionic bonds between positively charged sodium ions (Na+, each of which donated an electron, and negatively charged chloride ions (C1-), each of which received an electron. |
|
|
Term
| The 1st Law of Thermodynamics. |
|
Definition
| Energy can not be created or destroyed, although it can change from one form to another (transformed), but the total amount remains the same. Energy is conserved. |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| decays into a series of daughter isotopes, eventually forming lead-207 (207Pb), and has a half-life of about 700 million years. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water is a compound composed of two hydrogen atoms bonded to one oxygen atom, and is denoted as H20 |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water molecules have a partial negative charge at its oxygen end and a partial positive charge at its hydrogen end. This composition allows water molecules to adhere to one another in a type of weakly attractive integration called a hydrogen bond. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water molecules bond well with ions and other partially charged molecules, so water can hold in solution, or dissolve, many other molecules, including chemicals vital for life. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| He found "the ruins of a recently burned city and the gates of hell, the Geysers |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| The big bang formed only the four lightest elements, Hydrogen, Helium, trace amounts of lithium, and beryllium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 99% of the universe is composed of Hydrogen and Helium. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Matter or material substances can exist in three interchangeable states: solid, liquid, or gas. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Almost all of the matter in the universe has been created in the centers of stars. |
|
|
Term
| Matter 4 Basic Ingredients |
|
Definition
| Ancient Greek philosophers thought that the great variety of matter arose from Air, Water, Fire, Earth. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| 5th century BC, Democritus argued that substances can be separated into a smallest pice "atomon" which became the word "adom" that we use today. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| He found that most substances couuld be broken down into another, but a few could not be broken down, Gold, Sulfur, Iron. These substances he called Elements. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| 96% of living organism include Oxygen (O), Cargon (C), Hydrogen (H), Nitrogen (N) |
|
|
Term
| Building Blocks of Earth & Life |
|
Definition
| Atoms, molecules, and compounds are the building blocks of earth & life. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Each element has a name, which is represented by a one or two letter abbreviation. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Atoms are made up of 3 types of smaller particals called sub-atomic particals: Protons, Neutron, Electrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Progons and neutrons are found at the center of the Atom. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Electrons orbit the neutrons and protons near the speed of light. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| we differentiate atoms by their subatomic particles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Hydrogen has 1 proton and 1 electron |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Calcium has 20 protrons, 20 neutrons and 20 electrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The neucleus of the atom contains 99% of the atoms mass and carries a positive charge. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Protons have a positive charge and determines how the element will behave, therefore each element is defined by its number of protons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Atoms are classified by their atomic number, which is equal to the number of protons in its nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neutrons have no electrical charge, have little effect on how the atom acts or its structure, yet holds the nucleus together. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the number of electrons must equal the number of protons to maintain electrical neutrality. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All matter is composed of tiny, moving particles, separated by space, abnd held together by energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Each element has a characteristic number of protons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Is the sum of the protons and neutrons in each nucleus. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Forms of a single element that differ in atomic mass are called isotopes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A process where the nuclei spontaneously break apart (decay). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Some isotopes are radioactive and decay until they become non-radioactive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Arranges elements according to atomic number and atomic weight, numbers increase from left to right. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Made the first periodic table in 1869. He ordered the elements according to their atomic mass. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| took Mendeleevs table and rearragned the elements based on atomic number. This is the form used today. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Make up molecules and compunds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Elements in the periodic table that occur in the same row have the same number of atomic orbitals (or shells, or energy levels). |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A combination of two or more atoms |
|
|
Term
| Commonly Ocurring Molecules |
|
Definition
| molecular oxygen and molecular nitrogen |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A molecule made up of two or more kinds of atoms held together by chemical bonds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Formed when one atom gives up an electron to another atom. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Formed when two or more atoms share electrons. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Carbon can form covalent bonds simultaneously with four other atoms, and can create complex structures (sugars, proteins, etc.) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water makes up 60 to 70 percent of the weight of living organisms, medium in which all of life's chemical reactions occur, good electrical conductor, highest surfact tension of any common, natural liquid, wide temeperature range, expands wihen it crystallizes, high heat of vaporization, high specific heat. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water molecules bond well with other polar molecules because the positive end of one molecule bonds readilty to the negative end of another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Solutions = no chemical bonding, but is a mixture of substances (i.e. blood, oil) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Water is the universal solvent bhecaqus it can dissolve so many chemicals, especially polar and ionic compounds. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| holds sodium and chlorid ions, among other things. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When an atom gives up (loses) one or more electrons, because it is very often oxygen that takes the electron (O) is common and highly reactive. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| When an atom gains electrons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemical reactions necessary for life involve oxidation and reducgtion: oxidation of sugar and starch molecules is nhow you get energy from food. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Compounds that readily release hydrogen itons (H+) in water; HCI (Hydrochloric acid) readily dissociates in water to form: hydrogen ions (H+) (gives up and electron) and chlorine ions (C1-) (gains an electron) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Substances that readily take up hydrogen ions (H+) and release hydroxide ions (OH) in solution, also called alkaline substances. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Organized around skeletons of carbon atoms arranged in rings or chains; include biomolecules, molecules, synthesized by living organisms. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 Major Organic Compounds |
|
Definition
| Living things contain 4 major categories of organic compounds: lipds, carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A chemical compuond or mixture of compounds consisting of long chains of repeated molecules. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Chemmically divers group of compunds that do not disolve in water and are part of the hydrocarbons family: fats and oils, phosholipids, waxes, steroids |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Independent cells that lack a nuclear envelope and lack a cell nucleus, such as bacteria and archea |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Are often found in multicellular organisms, contain an outehr membrane of lipids and an inner fluid-filled chamber containing organelles. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Include ribosomes, which synthesis proteins, and mitochondria which help extrace energy from sugars and fats. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Single-celled cells lacking a membrane bound organelles and a nucleus. All bacteria are prokaryotes. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| (J) is the work done when one kilogram is accelerated at one meter per second per second. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Can be measured as 4.184 J |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The British scientist who the joule is named after. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| is the amount of energy needed to heat one grame of pure water one degree celsius. |
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Related to kinetic energy. Work transfers energy from one object to another. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Refers to the group of atoms, molecules or objects being studied. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The rest of the universe other than the system. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| exihibits an exchange of energy with its surroundings. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| A measure of disorder or randomness, and the tendency of all natural systems to move towards a state of increasing disorder. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| diffused, dispersed, or low in temperature, difficult to gather and use for productive purposes, example: heat stored in the oceans. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Intense, concentraed, or high in temperature, useful in carrying out work, example: high-voltage electrical energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| According to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, heat will never flow spontaneously from a cold to hot object, energy alwasys goes from a more useful form to a less useful form, and every isolated/closed system will become more disoreded with time. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Heat is the least useful form of energy. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| The amount of work you get from an engine, divided by the amount of energy you put into it. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| One in which a number of objects are positioned in a regular predictable pattern. Some systems become more ordered, but only at the expense of more disorder elsewhere. |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Objects are randomly situated without any obvious pattern. |
|
|
Term
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Definition
| The range in which the sun emits radiation, and where visible light makes up only a small proportion of this energy. |
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Definition
| the mount of incoming solar radiation is 1,372 watts/m (squared) 1 watt = 1 J/sec |
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Term
| Solar Radiation that Doesn't reach Earths surface |
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Definition
| 10% ultraviolet, 45% visible, 45% infrared |
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Term
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Definition
| Of the energy that reaches the earths surface, only certain wavelengths are used, maily red and blue light. |
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Definition
| Most plants reflect green wavelengths |
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Term
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Definition
| Adenosine triphosphate a high energy, mobile molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate a high energy molecule that help drive reactions in the Calvin cycle, in which carbon dioxide is used to produce sugars. |
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