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| study of biological functions of the body |
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| cell --> tissue --> organ --> system |
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-1813-1878
-French man that discovered the milieu intérieur (inside wall of your body) |
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| the inside wall of your body |
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| discovered the milieu intérieur (inside wall of your body) |
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| one of the core concepts of physiology |
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-1871-1945)
-developed the term homeostasis and studied some mechanisms of it |
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| developed the term homeostasis and studied some mechanisms of it |
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Definition
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| Maintaining constancy of internal environment |
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| set point within a certain normal range |
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| some physiologic variables where there's a desired range |
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Definition
-blood pressure
-blood glucose |
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| what happens when the physiological parameters increase or decrease too much? |
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Definition
| a loop is activated to reach homeostasis |
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| how a loop to reach homeostasis is activated |
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Definition
-Sensor detects deviation from set point
-Integrating center, often CNS, determines the response
-Effector, often muscles or glands, produces the response; this is the target tissue |
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| detects physiological deviation from set point |
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| often the CNS, this determines the response to the physiological deviation from set point |
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| often muscles or glands, this is the target tissue that produces the response to the physiological deviation from set point |
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| How does the integrating center communicate with the effector tissues? |
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| it usually boils down to signaling patways, which can be through the nervous system or through hormones, sometimes with crossover between the two types of pathways |
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| Produces change in opposite direction to reverse the deviation so that homeostasis can be reached |
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| an example of a negative feedback pathway |
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Definition
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| Homeostasis is achieved by... |
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| negative feedback inhibition |
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| Examples of physiological parameters that are regulated by negative feedback |
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| the cells that make insulin |
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| the beta cells in the pancreas |
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| what's more common? positive or negative feedback? |
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| when positive feedback is necessary |
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Definition
| when something needs to be done urgently |
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| Examples of processes that use positive feedback |
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Definition
-cervical dilation and oxytocin
-clotting cascade |
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| example of a positive feedback pathway |
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Definition
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| the 4 main types of tissue in the body |
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Definition
-Muscle
-Nervous
-Epithelial
-Connective |
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| the 3 types of muscle tissue |
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| the 2 types of nervous tissue |
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| Neurons are composed of... |
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-dendrites
-cell body
-axons |
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| cells that form membranes and glands |
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| hollow portion of an organ |
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| spme organs that have a lumen |
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-respiratory tract
-digestive tract |
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| provide barrier between external and internal environments |
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| ______ forms the functional parenchyma of organs |
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Definition
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| epithelial tissue forms the ______ of organs |
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Definition
the functional tissue of an organ as distinguished from the connective and supporting tissue
for example, in the liver, the functional parenchyma is what does the metabolizing |
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| some types of connective tissue |
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Definition
-connective tissue proper
-bone
-cartilage
-blood |
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| this is present between connective tissue cells |
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Definition
| Cells + Extracellular Matrix |
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| Extracellular Matrix (EM) composed of... |
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Definition
| -protein fibers
-ground substance |
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Definition
| at least two primary tissues |
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Definition
| organs located in different regions of the body and perform related functions |
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| molecules that usually need help crossing cell membranes |
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Definition
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Definition
| molecules that contain both polar (hydrophilic) head group and non-polar (hydrophobic) tail group |
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Definition
| -RCOO-Na+
-Detergent action |
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| some important amphipathic molecules |
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Definition
-Phospholipids
-Bile acids (salts) |
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Term
| some functions of phospholipids |
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Definition
-Cell membrane structure
-Transport of lipids in the blood
-Functions and mechanisms of the pulmonary surfactants
-Absorption of lipids into cells
-Entry of steroids into cells |
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| function of bile acids (salts) |
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Definition
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| some components of the cell membrane other than phospholipids |
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Definition
-lipids
-proteins
-carbohydrates |
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| Membrane proteins serve as... |
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Definition
-pumps
-enzymes
-receptors
-energy transducers |
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| function of Golgi complex/apparatus |
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| Synthesizes carbohydrates and packages molecules from the endoplasmic reticulum for secretion; secretes lipids and glycoproteins |
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Term
| function of nuclear envelope |
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Definition
| Supports nucleus and controls passage of materials between nucleus and cytoplasm |
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| function of mitochondrion |
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Definition
| Release energy from food molecules and transform energy into usable ATP |
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| Digest foreign molecules and worn and damaged organelles |
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| Contains genetic code that determines which proteins (including enzymes) will be manufactured by the cell |
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| function of plasma (cell) membrane |
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Definition
| Gives form to cell and controls passage of materials into and out of cell |
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| function of microtubules and microfilaments |
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Definition
| Support cytoplasm and transport materials within the cytoplasm |
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| assists in protein synthesis |
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| function of cytoplasm (cytosol) |
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| Serves as matrix substance in which chemical reactions occur |
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| function of secretory vesicle |
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| 2 centrioles make a centromere, which helps to organize spindle fibers and distribute chromosomes during mitosis |
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Definition
| Produces ribosomal RNA for ribosomes |
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Definition
| contains the DNA and genetic information of the cell |
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Definition
| -metabolizes nonpolar compounds
-stores Ca2+ in striated muscle cells |
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Definition
| helps to organize spindle fibers and distribute chromosomes during mitosis |
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Definition
| Contain enzymes that detoxify harmful molecules and break down hydrogen peroxide |
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Definition
| Store and release various substances within the cytoplasm |
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| function of cilia and flagella |
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Definition
| Move particles along cell surface or move the cell |
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Term
| structure of Plasma (cell) membrane |
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Definition
| Membrane composed of double layer of phospholipids in which proteins are embedded |
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| structure of Cytoplasm (cytosol) |
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Definition
| Fluid, jellylike substance between the plasma membrane and the nucleus in which organelles are suspended |
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| System of interconnected membrane-forming canals and tubules |
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| Granular particles composed of protein and RNA |
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| structure of Golgi complex |
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Definition
| Cluster of flattened membranous sacs |
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| structure of Mitochondria |
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Definition
| Membranous sacs with folded inner partitions |
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Definition
| Spherical membranous vesicles |
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| Nonmembranous mass of two rodlike centrioles |
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Definition
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| structure of Microfilaments and microtubules |
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Definition
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| structure of Cilia and flagella |
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Definition
| Minute cytoplasmic projections that extend from the cell surface |
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Term
| structure of Nuclear envelope |
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Definition
| Double-layered membrane that surrounds the nucleus, composed of protein and lipid molecules |
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Definition
| Dense nonmembranous mass composed of protein and RNA molecules |
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Definition
| Fibrous strands composed of protein and DNA |
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| the 3 main parts of the cell |
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Definition
-Cell (or plasma) membrane
-Cytoplasm
-Nucleus |
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| 2 main components of the cytoplasm |
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| the major thermodynamic barrier to the movement of most ions and molecules through the membrane |
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Definition
| the interior core of the bilayer |
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Term
| what percentage of the human body is water? |
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Definition
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Term
| the intracellular and extracellular distribution of water in the human body |
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Definition
~67% intracellular
~33% extracellular |
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Term
| the extracellular distribution of water in the human body |
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Definition
-20% as vascular fluid (blood plasma)
-80% as interstitial fluid (non-vascular “tissue fluid”) |
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Term
| the watery component of vascular fluid |
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Definition
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| the watery component of interstitial fluid |
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Definition
| non-vascular "tissue fluid" |
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Term
| amount of water that resides within human cells |
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Definition
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| amount of water that resides within the human's extracellular matrix |
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Definition
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| amount of water that resides within human interstitial fluid |
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Definition
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| amount of water that resides within human blood plasma |
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Definition
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| depiction of how water is distributed inside humans |
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Definition
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| major constituents of the extracellular envirunment |
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Definition
-water
-carbohydrates
-protein |
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Term
| extracellular matrix (ECM) aka... |
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Definition
| extracellular fluid (ECF) |
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| some components of the extracellular matrix (ECM) |
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Definition
-Gel-like hydrated material
-“Ground substance”
-Protein fibers |
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| some components of the “Ground substance” in the extracellular matrix |
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Definition
-Glycoproteins (such as integrins)
-Proteoglycans |
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| some protein fibers in the extracellular matrix |
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| cross-linked fibers of collagen |
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Definition
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| why the Gel-like hydrated material in the ECM/ECF is viscous |
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Definition
| because of biomolecules such as carbohydrates and proteins |
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Definition
| extracellular layer of Glycoproteins, Proteoglycans, and possibly other molecules, all of which being connected to the cell membrane |
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Term
| molecules that can pass directly through a phospholipid bilayer bu simple diffusion |
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Definition
-molecular gases
-small uncharged polar molecules |
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| the primary means of movement of ions and molecules across a plasma membrane |
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Definition
| carrier mediated transport |
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| Biological systems exist within ______ solutions |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the amount of solute relative to the amount of solution (or solvent) |
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Definition
| Concentration differences |
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Term
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Definition
| water is the solvent and the things dissolved in it are the solutes |
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| the solute equilibrating to equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane happens only if the solute is... |
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Definition
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Term
| solutes that will not equilibrate to equal concentrations on both sides of the membrane |
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Definition
| charged solutes, such as cations and anions |
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Term
| the 2 elements involved in simple diffusion across a cell membrane |
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Definition
-the diffusional driving force
-the selective permeability of that membrane |
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| The diffusional driving force vs. the concentration gradient |
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Definition
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Term
| the selective permeability of a membrane determines,,, |
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Definition
| the degree to which (or whether) a substance will diffuse across a lipid bilayer |
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Definition
| the non-carrier-mediated, “downhill” movement of some molecules across a cell membrane |
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Definition
| the net diffusion of water (solvent) across a membrane, from regions of higher [water] to lower [water] |
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Term
| In order for osmosis to occur... |
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Definition
-Membrane must be selectively permeable to water
-Concentration gradient for solute must exist across the membrane
-*Solute must be “osmotically active” (membrane nearly impermeable to solute) |
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Term
| “osmotically active” solute |
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Definition
| when the membrane is nearly impermeable to the solute |
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Definition
| the force needed to counteract osmosis |
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| solute concentration vs. the osmotic pressure of the solution |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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which side is exerting osmotic pressure?
[image] |
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Definition
| right side (higher solute concentration) |
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Term
| osmotic pressure is a ______ property |
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Definition
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Definition
| property that's not dependent on the identity of the solutes in the solution; all that matters is the total solute concentration |
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Definition
| amount of solute relative to the amount of solution (or solvent) |
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Definition
the number of moles of solute per kilogram of solvent
1m soln = (1mol solute)/(1kg solvent) |
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Definition
the number of moles of solute per liter (L) of solution (soln)
1M soln = (1mol solute)/(1L soln) |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the total molality of the solution = the sum of the molalities of all solutes present |
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Term
| some salts that may be in biological systems |
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Definition
| -NaCl
-KBr
-KCl
-CaCl2
-MgBr2 |
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Term
why does this happen?
[image] |
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Definition
| because the NaCl gets dissolved and each ion becomes a solute of its own; the 1 m NaCl becomes 1 m Na+ and 1 m Cl-, making it 2 m solute (2 Osm) |
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Term
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Definition
The osmotic pressure of a solution in comparison to the pressure of another solution
-this refers to the total concentration of solutes |
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Term
| water follows solute as long as... |
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Definition
| a total solute concentration gradient exists & the membrane is permeable to water |
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Definition
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Term
| carrier-mediated transport |
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Definition
| transport of proteins across the phospholipid bilayer by way of proteins in the bilayer |
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Term
| carrier proteins, or membrane transport proteins |
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Definition
| proteins in the membrane that help molecules cross the membrane |
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Term
| classes of membrane transport proteins by type of protein |
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Definition
-Pumps (a.k.a. ATPases)
-Carriers (a.k.a. transporters)
-Channels |
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Definition
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Definition
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| classes of membrane proteins by energy requirements |
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Definition
-Passive transport
-Active transport |
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| types of Passive transport proteins |
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Definition
-All channels
-Some carriers (uniporters) |
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| types of Active transport proteins |
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Definition
-All pumps
-Some carriers (symporters and antiporters) |
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| some characteristics shared by all classes of proteins |
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Definition
-Specificity
-Competition
-Saturation |
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| some ways membrane transport proteins are classified |
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Definition
-by type of protein
-by thermodynamic (energy) requirements |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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| some characteristics of ATP-powered pumps |
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Definition
-the largest, most clunky proteins that serve as membrane transport proteins
-typically comprised of several subunits
-they’re like a really large enzyme complex where the enzyme is going to hydrolyze ATP, and then that's going to drive the movement of a particular solute via the help of this particular transporter
-tend to be the slowest membrane transport proteins |
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Term
| some characteristics of ion channels |
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Definition
-typically move things at the fastest rate
-cylindrical
-can open and close |
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Term
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Definition
| moves one solute across the membrane |
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Definition
| moves at least 2 solutes across the membrane in the same direction |
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Definition
| moves 2 solutes in opposite directions |
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| some subtypes of carriers |
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Definition
-uniporters
-symporters
-antiporters |
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Term
| the clunkiest membrane transport proteins |
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Definition
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Term
| the least clunky membrane transport proteins |
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Definition
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Term
| clunkiness of membrane transport protein vs. speed of transport |
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Definition
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Term
| the largest, most clunky proteins that serve as membrane transport proteins |
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Definition
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Term
| they’re like a really large enzyme complex where the enzyme is going to hydrolyze ATP, and then that's going to drive the movement of a particular solute via the help of this particular transporter |
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Definition
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Term
| tend to be the slowest membrane transport proteins |
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Definition
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Term
| typically move things at the fastest rate |
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Definition
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Term
| membrane transport proteins that are cylindrical |
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Definition
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Term
| membrane transport proteins that can open and close |
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Definition
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Term
| a type of passive transport |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| where solutes move energetically downhill (transporter does not do work) |
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Term
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Definition
| where solutes move energetically uphill (transporter does work) |
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Term
| categories of active transport |
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Definition
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Term
| membrane transport proteins that do primary active transport |
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Definition
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Term
| membrane transport proteins that do secondary active transport |
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Definition
| some carriers (symporters and antiporters) |
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Term
| the enzymatic activity of ATP-powered pumps |
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Definition
| on the cytosolic side, it converts ATP to ADP + Pi; that cleavage of that phosphate bond releases the energy needed to move the solute uphill |
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Term
| the type of gradient more relevant to uncharged solutes |
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Definition
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Term
| the type of gradient more relevant to charged solutes |
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Definition
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Term
| where the energy comes from in primary active transport |
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Definition
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Term
| where the energy comes from in secondary active transport |
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Definition
| allowing one solute to move down its gradient so that the other can move against its gradient |
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Term
| why transporters that use flow of a solute down its gradient to pump another solute against its concentration gradient are called SECONDARY ACTIVE transporters |
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Definition
because they rely on gradients established by pumps (primary active transporters)
[image] |
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Term
| why can it be said that the secondary active transporter does work? |
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Definition
| because it allows a solute to move against its gradient |
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Term
| the primary pump, or ATPase, that exists in all of our cells, across all different tissue types |
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Definition
| the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump” |
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Term
| the role of the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump” |
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Definition
| creates & maintains the primary ionic gradients across the plasma membranes of our cells |
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Term
| how the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump” works |
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Definition
| -it burns ATP to create & maintain the primary ionic gradients across the plasma membranes of our cells
-For each ATP burned, this pump moves 3 Na+ ions out of the cell and 2 K+ ions into the cell
[image] |
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Term
| For each ATP burned, the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump,” moves ______ Na+ ions out of the cell and ______ K+ ions into the cell |
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Definition
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Term
| For each ATP burned, the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump,” moves 3 ______ ions out of the cell and 2 ______ ions into the cell |
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Definition
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Term
| how much of our ATP does the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump” use? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| moves a net charge across the membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| moves zero net charge across the membrane |
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Term
| an example of a pump that's electrogenic |
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Definition
| the Na+/K+-ATPase, or “sodium pump” |
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Term
| Many secondary active transporters “couple” the uphill movement of ions or molecules to the downhill movement of... |
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Definition
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Term
| an example of a secondary active transporter that “couple” the uphill movement of ions or molecules to the downhill movement of Na+ or K+ |
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Definition
the sodium/glucose cotransporter
[image] |
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Term
| how the sodium/glucose cotransporter works |
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Definition
| moves both Na+ and glucose into the cell by using the downhill movement of Na+ to move glucose uphill
[image] |
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Term
| an example of a uniporter |
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Definition
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Term
| how the Na+/K+-ATPase, the sodium/glucose cotransporter, and the glucose uniporter work together to drive the movement of glucose thru epithelial cells into the blood |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| part of the epithelial cell membrane that faces towards the lumen of an organ |
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Term
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Definition
| part of the epithelial cell membrane that faces towards the blood |
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Term
| the least diverse group of membrane transport proteins |
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Definition
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Term
| some places where Ca pumps can be found |
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Definition
-plasma membranes
-SR and ER membranes |
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Term
| the primary function of the Na pump |
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Definition
| to maintain the gradients of Na and K |
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Term
| how pumps (primary active transporters) function |
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Definition
| they are always moving solutes (ions) UPHILL, against their electrochemical gradients |
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Term
| how secondary active transporters (cotransporters & antiporters) function |
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Definition
| they are always moving at least one solute UPHILL, against its electrochemical gradient, and at least one solute DOWNHILL |
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Term
| how uniporters and channels function |
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Definition
| they are passive transporters – solutes are only able to move DOWNHILL |
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Term
| some ways molecules can move in and out of the cell |
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Definition
-diffusion & osmosis
-carrier-mediated transport
-vesicular fusion |
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Term
| molecules that have to be transported in and out of the cell by vesicular fusion |
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Definition
| those that are too large to enter or exit cells via carrier-mediated transport |
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Term
| 2 types of transport by vesicular fusion |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| type of vesicular fusion transport that carries large cargo into the cell |
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Term
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Definition
| type of vesicular fusion transport that carries large cargo out of the cell |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| types of gradients that exist across cell membranes |
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Definition
-concentration gradient
-charge gradient |
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Term
|
Definition
| evidently unequal charge across a membrane |
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|
Term
|
Definition
| The potential difference or voltage that exists between the two sides of a plasma membrane |
|
|
Term
| what creates a membrane potential? |
|
Definition
| unequal charge distribution across a cell membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| resting membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| A typical cell at rest has a resting membrane potential (Vr) of... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the typical concentration gradients of Na, K, Cl, and Ca across the typical eukaryotic cell membrane |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| resting membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| what membrane potential specifically measures |
|
Definition
| the voltage of the inside of the cell relative to the outside of the cell, which is, by convention, 0 mV |
|
|
Term
| equilibrium potentials aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The value of the membrane potential (Vm) is dependent on... |
|
Definition
-All ionic concentration gradients across the membrane
-The permeabilities of all ions across the membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nernst equilibrium potential for K+ ions |
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Term
|
Definition
| the voltage that the membrane would assume if it was only permeable to K+ ions |
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Term
|
Definition
| nearly equal to each other |
|
|
Term
| Vr is nearly equal to VK due to... |
|
Definition
| the presence of “leaky” K+ channels that are always open |
|
|
Term
| in a cell at rest, most of the ionic activity through channels is taking place through... |
|
Definition
| open, what are called leaky K channels |
|
|
Term
| most of the permeability in the membrane of a cell at rest is to... |
|
Definition
| K+ thru leaky K+ channels |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| describes an electrochemical equilibrium state for a specific ion (X) |
|
|
Term
| The Nernst Equation represents... |
|
Definition
| a “balance point” between the two diffusional forces acting on ion X: (1) chemical & (2) electrical |
|
|
Term
| the two diffusional forces acting on ion X in the Nernst equation |
|
Definition
(1) chemical
(2) electrical |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Ex = (61 mV / z) log10 ([x]o / [x]i)
Ex = the Nernst potential for the ion in question
z = the charge of the valence of the ion
[x]o = concentration gradient of the ion outside the cell
[x]i = concentration gradient of the ion inside the cell |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the Nernst potential, which is the equilibrium potential (voltage) for ion X |
|
|
Term
| the Nernst potential (Ex) |
|
Definition
| the equilibrium potential (voltage) for ion X |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| there is no longer any net movement of ion X across the membrane; it's in dynamic equilibrium |
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|
Term
| when there is no longer any net movement of ion X across the membrane |
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the charge of the valence of the ion |
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Term
|
Definition
| concentration gradient of the ion outside the cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| concentration gradient of the ion inside the cell |
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|
Term
| example of how to calculate the Nernst equilibrium potential for potassium (EK) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| one reason the Ex is useful |
|
Definition
| it helps predict the direction the ion in question will go under certain cellular conditions by telling us the resting membrane potential that ion needs to be in dynamic equilibrium |
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|
Term
| how the potential (mV) in a cell becomes more negative |
|
Definition
| K+ leaves the cell and leaves behind an unpaired electron |
|
|
Term
| 3 things you need to know to predict the movement of an ion across a membrane |
|
Definition
| -The existing membrane potential (Vm)
-The Nernst potential for ion x (Ex)
-The charge on ion x (positive or negative) |
|
|
Term
| Vr negative and Ex positive; which way will an anion move? |
|
Definition
| out of the cell, leaving behind unmatched cations |
|
|
Term
| Vr negative and Ex positive; which way will a cation move? |
|
Definition
| into the cell, leaving behind unpaired electrons or unmatched anions |
|
|
Term
| Nernst potential for an ion tells us the balance between... |
|
Definition
| the chemical driving force and the electrical driving force acting on that ion |
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
| Cells communicate with one another via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how cells signal to each other |
|
Definition
| they release chemicals into the ECF, which then get “sensed” by other cells |
|
|
Term
| types of signaling between cells |
|
Definition
-Local signaling
-Neurotransmission
-Endocrine signaling |
|
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Term
|
Definition
-Autocrine signaling
-Paracrine signaling |
|
|
Term
| Target cells respond to chemical signals via... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the cells that receive the information (signaling molecules) |
|
|
Term
| endocrine signaling aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what type of signaling is this?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what type of signaling is this?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
what type of signaling is this?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| channel-linked receptors aka... |
|
Definition
| "ligand-gated ion channels" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| channel-linked receptors aka "ligand-gated ion channels" |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| channel-linked receptors aka "ligand-gated ion channels" |
|
Definition
a receptor that itself is a channel that can be opened or closed by binding to signaling molecules
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receptor that is an enzyme that the signaling molecule; there's binding on one side and enzymatic activity on the other end
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| G-protein-coupled receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| G-protein-coupled receptors |
|
Definition
bind to certain chemical signals and change conformation, activating the G-protein, which which then causes downstream events within the target cell
[image] |
|
|
Term
| types of cell-surface receptors |
|
Definition
-channel-linked receptors aka "ligand-gated ion channels"
-enzyme-linked receptors
-G-protein-coupled receptors |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
receptors that are completely inside the cell and bind to signaling molecules that are hydrophobic enough to diffuse through the cell membrane
[image]
in this case, the receptor is a transcription factor |
|
|
Term
| the 2 divisions of the nervous system |
|
Definition
-Central nervous system (CNS)
-Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
|
|
Term
| the 2 cell types of the nervous system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ major parts of the CNS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ______ broad regions of the brain |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| central nervous system (CNS) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
|
Definition
all nervous tissue outside of CNS
Nerves, ganglia, and nerve plexuses (outside of the CNS) |
|
|
Term
| the overall structure of the CNS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 3 broad regions of the brain |
|
Definition
-forebrain
-midbrain
-hindbrain |
|
|
Term
| the 7 major parts of the central nervous system (CNS) |
|
Definition
-spinal cord
-medulla oblongata
-pons
-cerebellum
-midbrain
-diencephalon
-cerebral hemisphere |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the supporting cells of the nervous system
they provide help and support to the neurons |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| the cell body, where the organelles are housed for the cell |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the finger-like projections that come out of the cell body of a neuron |
|
|
Term
| the parts of the neuron responsible for receiving information from other upstream neurons |
|
Definition
-cell body aka soma
-dendrites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the long projection out of the neuron's cell body that conducts action potentials |
|
|
Term
| where the action potentials in a neuron start |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
[image]
the fingerlike projections at the very end of the axon
nerve terminals house neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| which part of the neuron houses neurotransmitters? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how a signal is transmitted from one neuron to the next |
|
Definition
| neurotransmitter is released from the very end of the nerve terminal into the synaptic space |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some functional classes of neurons |
|
Definition
-afferent neurons
-efferent neurons
-interneurons |
|
|
Term
| some types of efferent neurons |
|
Definition
-somatic motor neurons
-autonomic motor neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Multipolar neuron located entirely within the CNS
basically serves as a short connector between other neurons |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neuron that transmits impulses from a sensory receptor into the CNS |
|
|
Term
| some components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
|
Definition
-Nerves
-ganglia
-nerve plexuses (outside of the CNS) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Neuron that transmits impulses from the CNS to an effector organ; for example, a muscle |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Cablelike collection of many axons in the PNS; may be “mixed” (contain both sensory and motor fibers) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nerve that stimulates contraction of skeletal muscles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nerve that stimulates contraction (or inhibits contraction) of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle and that stimulates glandular secretion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Grouping of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS |
|
|
Term
| Nucleus (in the context of the CNS) |
|
Definition
| Grouping of neuron cell bodies within the CNS |
|
|
Term
| Tract (in the context of the CNS) |
|
Definition
| Grouping of axons that interconnect regions of the CNS |
|
|
Term
| difference between nuclei and ganglia |
|
Definition
| nuclei are in the CNS while ganglia are in the PNS |
|
|
Term
| difference between fibers and tracts |
|
Definition
| tracts are in the CNS while fibers are in the PNS |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some ways neurons are classified |
|
Definition
-functionally
-morphologically
-neurotransmitter released |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons w/ long axons that project to regions far away, but are housed or contained completely within the CNS |
|
|
Term
| the morphological classes of neuroons |
|
Definition
-pseudounipolar
-bipolar
-multipolar |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how neurons are classified morphologically |
|
Definition
| their shape and the number of processes emanating from the cell body or the soma |
|
|
Term
| types of neurons that are multipolar neurons |
|
Definition
efferent and projection neurons
this is basically the morphological class of the prototypical neuron |
|
|
Term
| types of neurons that are bipolar neurons |
|
Definition
| retina and other sensory systems |
|
|
Term
| types of neurons that are pseudounipolar |
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 4 major types of glial cells that are housed in the CNS |
|
Definition
-ependymal cells
-astrocytes
-oligodendrocytes
-microglia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| specialized epithelial cells that line the brain ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| glial cells that form the myelin sheath around axons in the CNS |
|
|
Term
| how oligodendrocytes create myelin sheaths |
|
Definition
| by wrapping their plasma membranes around the axon |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-immune function
-phagocytic
-anti-inflammatory |
|
|
Term
| the most abundant type of glial cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the white matter in the brain? |
|
Definition
| myelin sheaths in the brain, especially axons that are heavily myelinated |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| -Glucose uptake from blood; lactate delivery to neurons
-K+ re-uptake
-Neurotransmitter (glutamate) re-uptake
-Glutamate/Glutamine shuttle to re-supply neurons with neurotransmitter
-Synaptogenesis & neurogenesis
-Establish & maintain the blood-brain barrier |
|
|
Term
| what the astrocyte does after it takes up glucose from the bloodstream |
|
Definition
| converts it to lactate, which is given to neurons as an energy source |
|
|
Term
| astrocytes re-uptake K+, especially in and around... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the glutamate/glutamine cycle between neurons and astrocytes |
|
Definition
[image]
-neuron releases glutamate into synapse
-astrocyte takes it up and converts it to glutamine
-astrocyte gives glutamine to the neuron, which converts it back to glutamate |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| creation of new synaptic connections |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the blood-brain barrier separates |
|
Definition
| the blood supply system and the interstitial fluid of the brain |
|
|
Term
| one oligodendrocyte creates how many internodes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a single patch of myelin sheath |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
they insulate and myelinate the axons in the peripheral nervous system
[image] |
|
|
Term
| a Schwann cell produces how many internodes? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sheath of Schwann (neurilemma) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
sheath of Schwann cell that wraps around the axon in the peripheral nervous system
[image] |
|
|
Term
| All PNS axons are encapsulated by... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some characteristics of multiple sclerosis |
|
Definition
-Autoimmune disease of the CNS
-Most common type of demyelinating disease
-Scleroses = scars (lesions) where myelin is lost
-Hinders ability of axons to conduct impulses
-No cure; treat symptoms |
|
|
Term
| some symptoms of multiple sclerosis |
|
Definition
-Relapsing, remitting, progressive
-Cognitive impairment
-Balance/coordination difficulties
-Vision problems
-Mood effects
-Pain
-Numbness |
|
|
Term
| depiction of what multiple sclerosis does to axons |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why multiple sclerosis is classified as an autoimmune disease |
|
Definition
| because the body produces antibodies and an immune response against the myelin |
|
|
Term
| why the symptoms differ between multiple sclerosis patients |
|
Definition
| because different patients can have different neurons affected |
|
|
Term
| the most common type of demyelinating disease |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 4 distinct regions of a neuron |
|
Definition
1: Dendrites
2: Soma
3: Axon
4: Nerve terminal
[image] |
|
|
Term
| dendrites and soma are about... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where neurotransmitters get released |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the axon and nerve terminals are about... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| action potential conduction |
|
|
Term
| the function of the nerve terminal |
|
Definition
| synaptic transmission (transmitting information) |
|
|
Term
| function of dendrites & soma |
|
Definition
| synaptic potentials & integration (receiving information) |
|
|
Term
| some aspects of communication within the nervous system |
|
Definition
-Information flow between neurons
-Information flow within a neuron
-Chemical & electrical signals |
|
|
Term
| how neuronscommunicate with other neurons |
|
Definition
| largely by chemical signals |
|
|
Term
| how information flows within a single neuron |
|
Definition
| largely dependent on changes in membrane potential, that is, electrical signals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the membrane potential can vary far away from resting membrane potential |
|
|
Term
| the 4 major ions for which cells maintain a concentration gradient |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the major determinant of the resting membrane potential |
|
Definition
| the leaky K+ channels that are always open |
|
|
Term
| some electrically excitable cells |
|
Definition
-Neurons
-muscle cells
-cardiac cells |
|
|
Term
| The membrane potential (Vm) fluctuates due to... |
|
Definition
| changes in the plasma membrane’s permeability to various ions |
|
|
Term
| how gthe permeability of a membrane changes |
|
Definition
| opening and closing of ion channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Vm becomes more positive relative to Vr |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Vm becomes more negative relative to Vr |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how the voltage is measured in a neuron |
|
Definition
electrode and oscilloscope
[image] |
|
|
Term
| Electrical excitability is mediated by... |
|
Definition
| changes in permeability through ion channels --> changes in Vm |
|
|
Term
| what causes changes in Vm? |
|
Definition
| changes in permeability through ion channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
transmembrane proteins that conduct ions
[image] |
|
|
Term
| are ion channels general or specific? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why ion channels regulate permeability |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some types of gated ion channels |
|
Definition
-Voltage-gated
-Ligand-gated
-Mechanically-gated |
|
|
Term
| types of gated ion channel that are expressed in nerve cell membranes |
|
Definition
-voltage-gated ion channels
-ligand-gated ion channels |
|
|
Term
| voltage-gated ion channels |
|
Definition
| ion channel that senses changes in the charge gradient across the membrane, causing the channel to open or close |
|
|
Term
| when the voltage-gated ion channels open up |
|
Definition
| usually when the membrane is depolarized |
|
|
Term
| where in the nerve cell voltage-gated ion channels are usually located |
|
Definition
| axonal membrane and nerve terminal |
|
|
Term
| where in the nerve cell ligand-gated ion channels are usually located |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanically gated ion channels |
|
Definition
| stretch or deformation of the membrane causes the channel to open or close |
|
|
Term
| some types of voltage-gated ion channels that affect membrane potential |
|
Definition
| -Na+ channels
-Ca2+ channels
-K+ channels
-Cl- channels |
|
|
Term
| what causes a voltage-gated ion channel's central pore to open or close? |
|
Definition
| the rotation up or down of an alpha-helix |
|
|
Term
| some details about the action potential that goes down an axon |
|
Definition
| -A propagated electrical “wave” running the length of the axon
-Stereotypical (same length, amplitude, etc.)
-Fixed amplitude, ~ 100 mV (from -70 mV to +30 mV)
-All-or-none event
-Threshold, ~ -55 mV
-Shape & duration of the waveform reflects changes in membrane permeability to Na+ and K+
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the threshold for a neuron to produce an action potential |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
the shape & duration of the waveform reflects...
[image] |
|
Definition
| changes in membrane permeability to Na+ and K+ |
|
|
Term
| the cycle of the "fast" Na channel |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the "fast" Na channel becomes open |
|
Definition
| when the membrane depolarizes |
|
|
Term
| the 3 distinct states of the "fast" Na channel |
|
Definition
-channel closed
-channel open
-channel inactivated |
|
|
Term
| why the "fast" Na channel follows the cycle it does |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 2 gates on the "fast" Na channel |
|
Definition
-Main gate
-Inactivation gate
[image] |
|
|
Term
| when the "fast" Na channel goes from inactivated to fully closed |
|
Definition
| when the membrane returns to resting membrane potential (Vr) |
|
|
Term
| the 2 distinct states of the "slow" K channel |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when the "closed" K channel is closed |
|
Definition
| when the membrane is at resting membrane potential (Vr) |
|
|
Term
| when the "closed" K channel is open |
|
Definition
| when the membrane is depolarized |
|
|
Term
| how the "fast" Na channels and "slow" K channels act during the formation of an action potential |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what happens when the neuron reaches the membrane potential? |
|
Definition
| all the Na channels open, then the K channels |
|
|
Term
| the repolarizing effects that happen right after the creation of an action potential |
|
Definition
-Na channel gets inactivated
-K channel opens |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the membrane potential dipping below resting membrane potential after the creation of an action potential
[image] |
|
|
Term
| what causes "undershoot" (dipping below the resting membrane potential after the creation of an action potential)? |
|
Definition
the K channels opening up more slowly than the Na channels
[image] |
|
|
Term
| comparison of how fast Na and K diffuse through the channels |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Absolute refractory period is due to... |
|
Definition
| the properties of the sodium channel |
|
|
Term
| the role of the refractory period |
|
Definition
-Ensures unidirectionality of nerve impulse
-Places limits on A.P. frequency |
|
|
Term
| types of refractory periods |
|
Definition
-absolute
-relative
[image] |
|
|
Term
| 2 things that ensure unidirectionality of an action potential |
|
Definition
-refractory period
-inactivation of Na channels |
|
|
Term
| when the axon does not act as a "magic rope" |
|
Definition
-when there's subdepolarizations (below threshold) in the axon hillock
-when there's hyperpolarizations in the axon hillock |
|
|
Term
| what happens to the action potential when the axon does not act like a magic rope? |
|
Definition
the signal dissipates very quickly
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some features of axons that increase conduction velocity |
|
Definition
-Increase axonal diameter
-Myelinate the axonal membrane |
|
|
Term
| some features of myelinated axons that increase conduction velocity |
|
Definition
-Myelin provides insulation
-“Saltatory” conduction due to myelin and nodes of Ranvier |
|
|
Term
| why there's dissipation of current in an axon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how increased axonal diameter increases conduction velocity |
|
Definition
| it increases the amount of current that can go through the axon |
|
|
Term
| how myelin sheaths benefit neurons |
|
Definition
-providing insulation
-decreasing leak |
|
|
Term
| the trade-off with thicker axons |
|
Definition
| larger surface area, which means more channels |
|
|
Term
| how thicker axons compensate for the increased leak risk created by more channels |
|
Definition
| they get more heavily myelinated |
|
|
Term
| how the myelin internodes increase the speed of conduction |
|
Definition
| by allowing the sodium current to make its way more quickly down the core of the axon to the next Node of Ranvier |
|
|
Term
| how the piece of axon membrane gets depolarized at a Node of Ranvier |
|
Definition
| the positive current moves down that axon to where the node is |
|
|
Term
| why the Na channels upstream of the action potential don't get triggered by the same action potential |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| myelinated axon vs. unmyelinated axon: flow of signal |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how communication occurs between neurons |
|
Definition
| synaptic transmission aka neurotransmission |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
release neurotransmitters into the extracellular space in response to an action potential
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the type of signaling used by most synapses |
|
Definition
chemical (neurotransmitters)
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
thin slice of extracellular space between neurons
[image] |
|
|
Term
| components of the presynaptic cell |
|
Definition
-Nerve terminal
-Synaptic vesicles
[image] |
|
|
Term
| components of the postsynaptic cell |
|
Definition
Cell surface receptors
[image] |
|
|
Term
| flow chart for neurotransmission |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 3 general steps of neurotransmission |
|
Definition
1: Release of neurotransmitters (NTs) from presynaptic nerve terminal
2: Interaction of NTs with post-synaptic cell membrane
3: Removal of NTs from synaptic cleft |
|
|
Term
| the events in the presynaptic cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how voltage-gated Ca2+ channels work |
|
Definition
-they open and close in response to action potential
-the depolarization provided by the Na channels provides the depolarization for the Ca channels |
|
|
Term
| what happens when Ca enters the presynaptic cell? |
|
Definition
The calcium sensors on the neurotransmitter vesicles and elsewhere react with Ca, leading to the concerted, rapid exocytosis of the neurotransmitter from the nerve terminal into the synaptic cleft.
[image] |
|
|
Term
| some types of Small-molecule NTs |
|
Definition
-Acetylcholine (Ach)
-Amino acids
-Purines (ATP)
-Biogenic amines |
|
|
Term
| some types of peptide NT's |
|
Definition
-Endogenous opioids
-Neuropeptide Y |
|
|
Term
| some types of gaseous NT's |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some types of neurotransmitters (NT's) |
|
Definition
-small-molecule NT's
-peptide NT's
-Endocannabinoids (lipids)
-Gases (NO, CO) |
|
|
Term
| some amino acids that can function as small-molecule NT's |
|
Definition
-Glutamate (Glu)
-Aspartate (Asp)
-GABA
-Glycine (Gly) |
|
|
Term
| some types of biogenic amines that can act as small-molecule NT's |
|
Definition
-Catecholamines (Tyr-deriv.)
-Serotonin (5HT) (Trp-deriv.) |
|
|
Term
| some types of Catecholamines (Tyr-deriv.) that act as neurotransmitters |
|
Definition
-Dopamine (DA)
-Norepinephrine (Norepi)
-Epinephrine (Epi) |
|
|
Term
| the largest group of neurotransmitters (most of our neurotransmitters) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| many small-molecule NT's are derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the major excitatory neurotransmitter of the CNS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors that cause depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| receptors that cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane |
|
|
Term
| catecholamines are derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| serotonin (SHT) is derived from... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| The response of the post-synaptic cell is dependent on... |
|
Definition
| the type/sub-type of NT-receptor present |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-LGICs (ligand-gated ion channels)
-GPCRs (G-protein-coupled receptors) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| ligand-gated ion channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| G-protein-coupled receptors |
|
|
Term
| types of receptor proteins likely to be expressed at the postsynaptic membrane |
|
Definition
-ligand-gated ion channels
-G-protein coupled receptors
[image] [image]
the green balls represent the neurotransmitters |
|
|
Term
| how change in the membrane potential (Vm) occurs in ligand-gated ion channels |
|
Definition
directly by passing through the channel
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how change in the membrane potential (Vm) occurs in G-protein coupled receptors |
|
Definition
indirectly via the heterotrimeric G-protein
[image] |
|
|
Term
| differences between change in membrane potential (Vm) using ligand-gated ion channels and that using G-protein coupled receptors |
|
Definition
-with ligand-gated ion channels, it's direct and faster
-with G-protein coupled receptors, it's indirect and slower |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential |
|
|
Term
| Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (“EPSP”) |
|
Definition
| Depolarization of the receiving cell |
|
|
Term
| Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (“IPSP”) |
|
Definition
| Hyperpolarization of the receiving cell |
|
|
Term
| types of electric responses of the post-synaptic cell |
|
Definition
-Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (“EPSP”)
-Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (“IPSP”) |
|
|
Term
| the parts of the neuron that lie on the postsynaptic side |
|
Definition
-dendrites
-soma (cell body)
remember, they're responsible for receiving information |
|
|
Term
| ligand-gated ion channels aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| G-protein coupled receptors aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 postsynaptic receptors that acetylcholine (Ach) can bind to and activate |
|
Definition
-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR), which is a ligand-gated ion channel for acetylcholine
-muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAchR), which is a G-protein coupled receptor for acetylcholine |
|
|
Term
| nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) |
|
Definition
a ligand-gated ion channel for acetylcholine that causes an EPSP
[image] |
|
|
Term
| muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAchR) |
|
Definition
M2: a G-protein coupled receptor for acetylcholine that causes an IPSP
[image]
this is the postsynaptic part of a heart cell |
|
|
Term
| why acetylcholine can cause different responses in different cells |
|
Definition
| because of its interactions with different types of receptors |
|
|
Term
| the ions that pass through the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) |
|
Definition
| Na+ and K+ in opposite directions
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) |
|
|
Term
| if the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) allows movement of Na+ and K+ in opposite directions, then why does a depolarization result? |
|
Definition
| because Na+ moves into the cell faster than K+ moves into it |
|
|
Term
| acetylcholine binding to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) can induce an EPSP (stimulatory) or IPSP (inhibitory) response depending on... |
|
Definition
-the type of muscarinic receptor
-the intracellular machinery the receptor is coupled to |
|
|
Term
| the types of muscarinic receptors that acetylcholine can bind to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what the heterotrimeric G-protein is made of |
|
Definition
3 different supunits:
-alpha-subunit
-beta-subunit
-gamma-subunit |
|
|
Term
| what the heterotrimeric G-protein splits into |
|
Definition
-an activated alpha-subunit
-a beta-gamma dimer
either of these can interact with a downstream protein to mediate physiological changes |
|
|
Term
why this results in an inhibitory response
[image] |
|
Definition
| because the beta-gamma dimer causes the K channel to open to allow the release of K+, causing a hyperpolarization |
|
|
Term
| the generic cycle of heterotrimeric G-proteins |
|
Definition
[image]
the purple ball is the neurotransmitter |
|
|
Term
| the inactivated state of the G-protein |
|
Definition
the one that has GDP on the alpha-subunit
[image] |
|
|
Term
| how the G-protein gets activated |
|
Definition
GDP on the alpha-subunit gets replaced with GTP
[image] |
|
|
Term
| the downstream protein the beta-gamma dimer binds to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the downstream protein the alpha-GTP binds to |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Passive mechanisms by which neurotransmitters leave the synaptic cleft |
|
Definition
| Simple diffusion (neurotransmitter moving away from the synaptic cleft) |
|
|
Term
| Active mechanisms by which neurotransmitters leave the synaptic cleft |
|
Definition
-Reuptake (secondary active transporters)
-Digestion (enzymes) |
|
|
Term
| synapses that use passive mechanisms to get neurotransmitters out of the synaptic cleft |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what does the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft? |
|
Definition
| secondary active transporters |
|
|
Term
| what does the digestion of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the secondary active transporters used for the reuptake of neurotransmitters are usually expressed |
|
Definition
| nerve terminal membrane or glial cells |
|
|
Term
| how digestion of neurotransmitters in acetylcholine synapses works |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| works in the synaptic cleft to convert acetylcholine into acetate and choline |
|
|
Term
| types of proteins that are often expressed on the postsynaptic membranes of dendrites and soma |
|
Definition
-ligand-gated ion channels
-G-protein-coupled receptors |
|
|
Term
| general depiction of the synaptic integration process that occurs in postsynaptic neurons |
|
Definition
[image]
the red curve is the response of the postsynaptic cell; this influences the creation of an action potential in the axon hillock |
|
|
Term
| The 7 major divisions of the CNS |
|
Definition
-Cerebrum
-Diencephalon
-Midbrain
-Cerebellum
-Pons
-Medulla oblongata
-Spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Learning & memory
-Mood
-Motor control |
|
|
Term
| the 3 major parts of the brain stem |
|
Definition
-medulla oblongata
-pons
-midbrain |
|
|
Term
| components of the forebrain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of the hindbrain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of the cerebrum |
|
Definition
-Cerebral cortex
-Basal ganglia
-Hippocampus
-Amygdala |
|
|
Term
| components of the diencephalon |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 4 lobes of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
-the frontal lobe
-the parietal lobe
-the occipital lobe
-the temporal lobe |
|
|
Term
| Cavities in the CNS are filled with |
|
Definition
| cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
|
|
Term
| the cavities in the central nervous system filled with cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
|
Definition
-Ventricles (brain)
-Central canal (spinal cord) |
|
|
Term
| components of gray matter |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| components of white matter |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which ventricle is number 1?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which ventricle is number 2?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which ventricle is number 3?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which ventricle is number 4?
[image] |
|
Definition
| to central canal of spinal cord |
|
|
Term
which ventricle is number 5?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
which ventricle is number 6?
[image] |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
|
Definition
| maintains the proper environment within the interstitial fluid of the brain |
|
|
Term
| why gray matter appears gray |
|
Definition
| because it's not myelinated |
|
|
Term
| some structures within the cerebrum |
|
Definition
-cerebral cortex
-subcortical regions |
|
|
Term
| some structures within the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some structures within the convolutions |
|
Definition
-gyrus (peak)
-sulcus (valley) |
|
|
Term
| some structures within the subcortical regions |
|
Definition
-Basal ganglia
-Hippocampus
-Amygdala |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a large series of axonal bundles, or tracts, that allow communication between the 2 hemispheres of the brain |
|
|
Term
| the "5th lobe" of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
| the insular cortex or insular lobe |
|
|
Term
| a cross-section of the brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the dividing line between the temporal lobe on the bottom and the frontal and parietal lobes that exist above it
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the dividing line between the frontal lobe and the parietal lobe
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the deep chasm or dividing line between the two cerebral hemispheres at that cortical level |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| one hemisphere being more involved in certain tasks than the other |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| cross over (tracts do along the spinal cord between the cerebrum and the very lower part or parts of the CNS) |
|
|
Term
| where tracts in the CNS usually decussate (cross over) |
|
Definition
| at the level of the spinal cord or the medulla oblongata |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pertaining to fibers, this refers to fibers crossing over to the other side as they make their way up and down between the brain and the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| pertaining to fibers, this refers to fibers staying on the same side as they make their way up and down between the brain and the spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| are most fibers in the CNS contralateral or ipsilateral? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some tasks the left side of the brain is more involved in |
|
Definition
-speech
-writing
-left ear
-main language center
-calculation
-right visual half field |
|
|
Term
| some tasks the right side of the brain is more involved in |
|
Definition
-right ear
-simple language comprehension
-spatial concepts
-left visual half field |
|
|
Term
| the functions of the different parts of the brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some functions of the frontal lobe |
|
Definition
| extremely important for coordinating our voluntary skeletal muscle movements |
|
|
Term
| prefrontal cortex part of the... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| some functions of the prefrontal cortex |
|
Definition
| it's where all of our very highest cognitive functions exist |
|
|
Term
| some functions of the parietal lobe |
|
Definition
-important for somatosensory perception
-a lot of processing of somatosensory information as well as other sorts of sensory information |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| our sense of our own bodies |
|
|
Term
| some functions of the occipital lobe |
|
Definition
| visual processing; primary visual cortex |
|
|
Term
| some functions of the temporal lobe |
|
Definition
-very important in terms of learning and memory and connections to other parts of the brain that are important for learning and memory
-important for auditory processing |
|
|
Term
| the importance of the precentral gyrus |
|
Definition
| it houses a topographical map of the motor system |
|
|
Term
| the importance of the postcentral gyrus |
|
Definition
| it houses a topographical map of the somatosensory system |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
the region of the left hemisphere’s frontal lobe that is dedicated to the output of language
[image] |
|
|
Term
| “posterior language area” aka... |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| “posterior language area” aka Wernicke’s area |
|
Definition
the region of the left hemisphere’s parietal lobe that is dedicated to the processing of language
[image] |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| homunculus of the precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus, respectively |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
basically a topographical map of parts of the brain being associated with specific parts of the body
[image][image] |
|
|
Term
| why each side of the body is, for the most part, associated with the opposite side of the brain |
|
Definition
| because of decussation or crossover that occurs with most of the fibers as they make their way from the brain down out into the spinal cord and out into the periphery |
|
|
Term
| depiction of the layers of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the 2 major neuron types in the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
-projection neurons
-local interneurons |
|
|
Term
| the neurons that function as the major output cells of any given piece of the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of projection neurons within the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| types of local interneurons in the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
| Located in all cell layers |
|
|
Term
| type of projection neuron that's glutamatergic |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neuron that releases glutamate from its nerve terminal |
|
|
Term
| how pyramidal cells communicate with downstream neurons |
|
Definition
| by making and releasing glutamate; this is usually excitatory |
|
|
Term
| is glutamate usually excitatory or inhibitory? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| specific characteristic of pyramidal cells in the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| specific characteristic of local interneurons in the cerebral cortex |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neuron that releases GABA from its nerve terminal |
|
|
Term
| is GABA usually excitatory or inhibitory? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| function of the basal ganglia |
|
Definition
| Control of voluntary movement |
|
|
Term
| function of the hippocampus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Emotion & memory
-Part of the “limbic system” |
|
|
Term
| function of the limbic system |
|
Definition
| it appears to be important in memory, the control of autonomic function, and some aspects of emotion and behavior |
|
|
Term
| some parts of the limbic system |
|
Definition
-hippocampus
-amygdala
-hypothalamus
-parts of the cerebral cortex
-thalamus
-parts of the basal ganglia, in particular the nucleus accumbens
-parts of the brain stem
-insula or insular cortex |
|
|
Term
| functions of the thalamus |
|
Definition
“Relay center” for ascending somatosensory information
Integration of motor information between basal ganglia, cerebellum, and cerebral cortex
-also important for "top-down" control |
|
|
Term
| functions of the hypothalamus |
|
Definition
-Regulation of “essential” behaviors: body temp, growth, eating & drinking, reproduction, body clock
-Regulation of the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system (ANS)
-Extensive connections with CNS |
|
|
Term
| some structural properties that allow the hypothalamus to regulate “essential” behaviors |
|
Definition
-Numerous neural centers (nuclei)
-Emotional components via medulla and limbic system |
|
|
Term
| the most superior portion of the brain stem |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| neurons that release dopamine from their nerve terminals |
|
|
Term
| functions of the midbrain |
|
Definition
Role in motor control: linkages between cerebellum, basal ganglia, and cortex
Components of visual & auditory systems
Major pathway for control of eye movements |
|
|
Term
| dome dopaminergic projection pathways |
|
Definition
-Nigrostriatal system
-Mesolimbic system |
|
|
Term
| the role of the Nigrostriatal system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the role of the Mesolimbic system |
|
Definition
| addiction/reward behaviors |
|
|
Term
| condition in which the Nigrostriatal system likely deteriorates |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| condition in which the Mesolimbic system is likely hyperactive |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why the cerebellum is called "little brain" |
|
Definition
| because it contains more than HALF of all the neurons in the brain |
|
|
Term
| some functions of the cerebellum |
|
Definition
-Coordination of movement; motor learning
-Coordination of eye & head movement; control of balance
-Involvement in language & other higher cognitive functions |
|
|
Term
| how the cerebellum is a major input center |
|
Definition
| it receives information from spinal cord, cerebral cortex, inner ear |
|
|
Term
| the 3 regions of the cerebellum |
|
Definition
-Cerebellar cortex (gray matter)
-Internal white matter
-Three deep nuclei |
|
|
Term
| general composition of the cerebellar cortex |
|
Definition
-Three layers
-Five neuron types |
|
|
Term
| the cerebellum has 5 neuron types, which among these are... |
|
Definition
-Four interneurons
-Purkinje cells (a type of projection neuron) |
|
|
Term
| how the purkinje in the cerebellum interact with the 3 deep nuclei in the cerebellum |
|
Definition
| the make and release GABA to inhibit the 3 deep nuclei |
|
|
Term
| what the layers of the cerebellar cortex look like |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the neurotransmitter released by Purkinje cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where the signal from Purkinje cells ultimately goes and by what means |
|
Definition
| it makes its way up to the frontal lobes, the primary motor cortex, and other parts of that motor cortex, via the connections in the three deeper lying structures of the cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| the 2 types of nuclei in the pons |
|
Definition
-ventral pontine nuclei
-dorsal pontine nuclei |
|
|
Term
| function of the ventral pontine nuclei in the pons |
|
Definition
| they relay motor and somatosensory information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| function of the diorsal pontine nuclei in the pons |
|
Definition
| they are involved in respiration, sleep, and taste |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-Ventral pontine nuclei relay motor and somatosensory information from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum
-Dorsal nuclei are involved in respiration, sleep, and taste |
|
|
Term
| functions of the medulla oblongata |
|
Definition
-Decussation of many tracts occurs at the medulla
-“Vital center” nuclei: cardiovascular regulation
-Early relay nuclei for taste, hearing, balance, control of neck & facial muscles |
|
|
Term
| where many of the nerve fibers do decussation (crossover) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| function of the "vital center” nuclei in the medulla oblongata |
|
Definition
| cardiovascular regulation |
|
|
Term
| function of the early relay nuclei in the medulla oblongata |
|
Definition
| taste, hearing, balance, control of neck & facial muscles |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
-on the parasympathetic side of the autonomic nervous system
-housed within the medulla |
|
|
Term
| the system housed in the reticular formation |
|
Definition
| reticular activating system (RAS) |
|
|
Term
| function of the reticular activating system (RAS) |
|
Definition
-important for the control of our internal clock - so our sleep and wakefulness cycles
-they have lots of connections to the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the forebrain, and the cortex |
|
|
Term
| general structure of the pons and the medulla oblongata |
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| brain stem respiratory centers |
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| the most inferior part of the CNS |
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| the composition of the spinal cord |
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Definition
-Central gray matter
-Surrounding white matter: funiculi
-Ascending tracts
-Descending tracts |
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| composition of the central gray matter in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-Two dorsal horns
-Two ventral horns |
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| the surrounding white matter around the gray matter in the spinal cord |
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| composition of ascending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
| Medial lemniscal tract & lateral spinothalamic tract |
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| functions of the ascending tracts in the spinal cord |
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-Bottom-up control
-Somatosensory information from periphery to CNS |
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| bundle of secondary sensory fibers in the brainstem |
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| composition of the descending tracts in the spinal cord |
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| Corticospinal tract & extrapyramidal tract |
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| function of the descending tracts in the spinal cord |
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-Top-down control
-Motor output from CNS to periphery |
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| the structure of the spinal cord and the direction information flows |
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| the ascending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-medial lemniscal tract
-lateral spinothalmic tract
[image] |
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| axons of 3rd-order neurons |
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| medial lemniscal tract (axons of 2nd-order neurons) |
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| fasciculus cuneatus (axons of 1st-order sensory neurons) |
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| joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor) |
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| lateral spinothalmic tract (axons of 2nd-order neurons) |
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| axons of 1st-order neurons (not part of spinothalmic tract) |
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| ascending tracts are about... |
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| the receptors in the medial lemniscal tract |
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Definition
-joint stretch receptor (proprioceptor)
-touch receptor
[image] |
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| the receptors in the lateral spinothalmic tract |
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Definition
-pain receptor
-temperature receptor
[image] |
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| where joint stretch receptors (proprioceptors) are found |
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Definition
-muscles
-tendons
-ligaments |
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| where touch receptors are found |
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| where crossover occurs in the medial lemniscal tract |
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| where crossover occurs in the lateral spinothalmic tract |
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Definition
| at the level of the spinal cord |
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| the role of the thalamus in ascending tracts |
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Definition
| serves as a relay center for somatosensory information |
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| the 2 descending tracts in the spinal cord |
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Definition
-corticospinal tract
-extrapyramidal tract
[image] |
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| descending tracts are about... |
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| where crossover occurs in the corticospinal tract |
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Definition
at the level of the medulla oblongata
[image] |
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| a part of the corticospinal tract that remains ipsilateral (doesn't cross over) |
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Definition
| anterior corticospinal tract |
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Definition
Molecular mechanism for learning & memory
LTP (long-term potentiation) |
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| the process by which short-term memory becomes long-term memory |
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| part of the brain important for learning and memory |
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| how short-term memory becomes long-term memory |
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Definition
| info flows from hippocampus to cerebral cortex |
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| the qualitative categories of memory |
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Definition
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| declarative (explicit) memory |
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Definition
-semantic, "rote" memory
-ability to remember specific things |
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| nondeclarative (implicit) memory |
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Definition
-how-to do things
-anything that involves our motor system, our skeletal motor system, and an actual act, and remembering how to perform that act |
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| the part of the brain involved with declarative (explicit) memory |
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| the temporal categories of memory |
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| how short-term memory works |
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Definition
-happens during “early” LTP
-Seconds to hours
-Synaptic changes: no new protein synthesis; nucleus not involved
-happens by phosphorylation and dephosphorylation events |
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| how long-term memory works |
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Definition
Days to years
Synaptic changes: new protein synthesis; nucleus not involved |
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Term
| some examples of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR's) |
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Definition
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| some types of glutamate receptors |
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Definition
-ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR's)
-metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluR's) |
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| 2 classes of ionotropic glutamate receptors (iGluR's) involved in memory |
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Definition
-Non-NMDA-Rs
-NMDA-Rs
[image] |
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| the 2 classes of Non-NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
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| some characteristics of Non-NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
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| some characteristics of NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
| -Voltage- and ligand-gated Na+/K+/Ca2+ channel
-Ca2+i as second messenger --> LTP |
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| which receptors are involved in LTP? non-NMDA-Rs or NMDA-Rs? |
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Definition
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Term
| the voltage gate in NMDA-Rs |
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Definition
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| some things that have to happen before the NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptor opens up |
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Definition
| -glutamate binds to receptor
-Mg2+ gets booted out into the extracellular space
-nearby non-NMDA receptor creates a depolarization across the membrane
[image] |
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Term
| the ions that pass through non-NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors |
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Definition
| -Na+ into the cell
-K+ out of the cell
[image] |
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Term
| the ions that pass through NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors |
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Definition
| -Na+ into the cell
-K+ out of the cell
-Ca2+ into the cell
[image] |
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| which type of ionotropic glutamate receptor provides the depolarization? NMDA or non-NMDA? |
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Definition
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| when ions pass through the NMDA ionotropic glutamate receptors, which one activates or induces LTP? |
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Definition
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| in normal synaptic transmission, is the NMDA-R active or inactive? |
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Definition
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| how the glutamate, AMPA receptor, and NMDA receptor interact in a synapse to activate LTP |
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Definition
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| what happens in early LTP? |
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Definition
| NMDA-R activation & short-term effects |
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| what happens in late LTP? |
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Definition
| NMDA-R activation & new protein synthesis --> long-term effects |
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| what the protein synthesized by late LTP does |
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Definition
strengthens connection between the neurons of the synapse
[image] |
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| some pathways that use biogenic amines |
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Definition
-Serotonin pathways
-Dopamine projection pathways from the midbrain |
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| some functions Serotonin pathways are involved in |
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Definition
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| Dopamine projection pathways come from... |
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Definition
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| some dopamine projection pathways from the midbrain |
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Definition
-Mesolimbic pathway
-Nigrostriatal pathway |
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| the Mesolimbic pathway is involved in... |
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Definition
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| the Nigrostriatal pathway is involved in... |
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| some subcategories of biogenic amines |
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Definition
-catecholamines
-indoleamines |
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| some examples of catecholamines |
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Definition
-dopamine
-norepinephrine
-epinephrine |
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| an example of an indoleamine |
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Definition
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| catecholamines are derived from... |
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Definition
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| indoleamines are derived from... |
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Definition
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| the enzymes in the presynaptic cell depend on... |
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Definition
| which particular monoamine that cell releases from its nerve terminal |
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| the biosynthetic pathways of catecholamines and serotonin |
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Definition
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| the only biogenic amine that is known to interact with a ligand-gated ion channel |
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Definition
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| how serotonin interacts with post-synaptic amines |
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Definition
| -interacts mostly with GPCRs; effects can be stimulatory or inhibitory
-interacts with one LGIC (5-HT3 receptor): Na+/K+ channel --> stimulatory |
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| how dopamine interacts with post-synaptic amines |
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Definition
-interacts only with GPCRs
-Effects can be stimulatory (D1 receptors) or inhibitory (D2 receptors) |
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| how norepinephrine & epinephrine interact with post-synaptic amines |
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Definition
| interacts only with GPCRs: alpha- and beta-receptors; effects can be stimulatory or inhibitory |
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| depiction of how catecholamines function in neurotransmission and cleft clearance |
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| break down neurotransmitters into smaller by-products that are not active neurotransmitters |
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| they implicate the subgenual region of the prefrontal cortex in regulation of mood |
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| The Biogenic Amine Hypothesis of Depression |
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Definition
| Depression might correspond with decreased activity of biogenic amine (5HT, Norepi, DA) pathways |
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| how The Biogenic Amine Hypothesis of Depression came about |
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Definition
-the drug reserpine had both depressive as well as Parkinson-like side-effects
-turns out, reserpine decreased monoaminergic signaling in the brain by inhibiting the uptake of DA, NE, 5HT into presynaptic vesicles |
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| the 1st generation of antidepressants |
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Definition
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs)
[image] |
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| the 2nd generation of antidepressants |
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Definition
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| the 3rd generation of antidepressants |
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Definition
selective serotonin reuptake blockers (SSRIs)
[image] |
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| monoamine oxidase inhibitors |
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Definition
| selective serotonin reuptake blockers |
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| how the 1st generation of antidepressants works |
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Definition
by inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO)
[image] |
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| how the 2nd generation of antidepressants works |
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Definition
by inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine
[image] |
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| how the 3rd generation of antidepressants works |
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Definition
by inhibiting reuptake of serotonin
[image]
kinda like the mechanism for inhibiting the reuptake of norepinephrine, but instead inhibits reuptake of serotonin |
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Term
| why the 1st and 2nd generations of antidepressants are prone to have side effects |
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Definition
| because they influence various circuits and networks that they're not intended to affect |
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| some neurotransmitters involved in mood |
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Definition
-serotonin
-norepinephrine
-dopamine |
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| vesicular amine transporter |
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| what many antidepressants inhibit |
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Definition
monoamine reuptake transporters
[image] |
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| the pathway that degenerates in Parkinson's disease |
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Definition
| the Nigrostriatal pathway |
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Term
| some details of the Nigrostriatal pathway |
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Definition
-DA nuclei in substantia nigra of midbrain project to putamen of basal ganglia
-Important for motor control
-Compromised in Parkinson’s disease
-L-DOPA can have schizophrenia-like side effects |
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| medication often used to treat Parkinson's disease |
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Definition
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| schizophrenia-like side effects |
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| L-DOPA can have schizophrenia-like side effects because... |
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Definition
| it influences many other circuits and pathways, including the mesolimbic pathway |
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| some details about the Mesolimbic pathway |
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Definition
-DA nuclei in ventral tegmental area of midbrain project to nucleus accumbens (of basal ganglia) and prefrontal cortex
-Important in reward behavior & emotion
-Overactivity in Schizophrenia
-D2 antagonists can have Parkinson-like side effects |
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Term
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Definition
| structure within the midbrain where dopaminergic nuclei in the nigrostriatal pathway are housed |
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| depiction of where the mesolimbic dopamine system and the negrostriatal dopamine system are located in the brain |
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Definition
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Definition
| structure within the midbrain where dopaminergic nuclei in the mesolimbic pathway are housed |
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| medication often given to schizophrenia patients |
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Definition
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| side-effect of D2 antagonist |
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Definition
| Parkinson-like side effects |
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| why D2 has Parkinson-like side effects |
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Definition
| because it affects many dopaminergic pathways, such as the nigrostriatic pathway |
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| part of the ventral striatum |
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Definition
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| components of the basal ganglia |
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Definition
-Corpus striatum
-Globus pallidus
-Substantia nigra
-Subthalamic nucleus |
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| components of the corpus striatum |
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Definition
-Caudate nucleus
-Putamen
-Ventral striatum |
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Definition
| mesolimbic dopamine system |
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| nigrostriatal dopamine system |
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basically the major output center of the basal ganglia
[image] |
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| part of the basal ganglia that is in the midbrain |
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| the components of the basal ganglia proper |
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Definition
-corpus striatum
-globus pallidus |
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Term
| The basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical motor circuit |
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Definition
| A complex motor control circuit that exists between the cortex, thalamus, and basal ganglia |
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Term
| some details about the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical motor circuit |
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Definition
-Stimulatory input from cortex to putamen
-Inhibitory output from globus pallidus to thalamus
-Tonic stimulation of motor cortex via thalamus |
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| depiction of the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical motor circuit |
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Definition
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| the sequence that causes Parkinsin's disease |
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Definition
1: dopaminergic input from the substantia nigra (midbrain) to the corpus striatum (basal ganglia) deteriorates
2: increased inhibitory output from globus pallidus to thalamus
3: decreased excitatory input from thalamus to cortex
4: hypokinetic disorder (hallmark of Parkinson's disease) |
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what's number 10a?
[image] |
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what's number 10b?
[image] |
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| glutamate neurotransmitter (excitatory) |
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| dopamine neurotransmitter (excitatory) |
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