Term
| while phrenology has been debunked, we still have the notion that ______ |
|
Definition
| certain parts of the brain do certain things |
|
|
Term
| ______ are the fundamental units of the brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| three main parts of neurons |
|
Definition
1. dendrites (input)
2. soma (integration)
3. axon (output) |
|
|
Term
| why do neurons differ in size & shape? |
|
Definition
| to achieve functional specialization |
|
|
Term
| communication between cells is achieved through _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| contact points between neurons are called ______ |
|
Definition
| synapses (Greek, "fastened together") (are where electrical signals are converted to chemical signals) |
|
|
Term
| neurons only release one type of transmitter which will have one of two possible types of effects on downstream ("post-synaptic") cell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| form & function of retinal ganglion cell |
|
Definition
| arborization allows it to take in information from a broad, wide area |
|
|
Term
| form & function of retinal bipolar cell |
|
Definition
| small dendrites --> relatively small cell body --> short singular descending axon; receives very limited information & transmits that information to specific neurons |
|
|
Term
| form & function of retinal amacrine cell |
|
Definition
| large surface area of dendrites --> cell body --> no axon!; just releases neurotransmitter diffusely from cell body |
|
|
Term
| form & function of cerebellar Purkinje cell |
|
Definition
| tons of dendrites --> very short distance to cell body --> axon with some feedback going back; integrates a lot of information & needs some feedback to itself |
|
|
Term
| form & function of cortical pyramidal cell |
|
Definition
| normal dendrites --> cell body --> axons going sideways; axons talk to other neurons nearby (ex. other pyramidal cells) |
|
|
Term
| why would a cell have a very long axon coming from axon hillock? |
|
Definition
| allows neurons in one area to talk to cells that are much farther away (up to centimeters) |
|
|
Term
| presynaptic neuron sends information from axon --> postsynaptic neuron receives information in _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the purpose of the dendritic spines |
|
Definition
| increase surface area of the dendrites |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| serves as insulation to allow the charge to carry on down the axon |
|
|
Term
| how do you tell which is presynaptic at a synaptic ending? |
|
Definition
| being able to see vesicles in that neuron (vesicles contain the neurotransmitter) |
|
|
Term
| gray matter vs white matter |
|
Definition
gray matter = neurons
white matter = mostly glia |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| shared genetic lineage with neurons, but (mostly) don't do signaling |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. homeostasis/clean up (astrocytes)
2. insulating axons to improve neural conduction (oligodendrocytes)
3. repair |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| morphology of oligodendrocyte |
|
Definition
| cell body with glial processes that are fairly long & axon-shaped |
|
|
Term
| function of microglial cell |
|
Definition
| derived from immune cells & serve an immune function |
|
|
Term
| different jobs of astrocyte, oligodendrocyte, or microglia |
|
Definition
cleaning up neurotransmitter = astrocyte
immune response = microglia
myelin = oligodendrocyte |
|
|
Term
| 2 main parts in the organization of the brain |
|
Definition
1. cerebral cortex: frontal, parietal, occipital, & temporal lobes
2. brain stem: how brain talks to rest of the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
gyrus = pointing out
sulcus = hole going in |
|
|
Term
| goal of brains having folds (sulcus & gyrus) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| on a graph measuring activity of sensory neuron on a graph of time (ms) vs membrane potential (mV), what is the peak up? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 parts of cortical nervous system |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is the peripheral nervous system |
|
Definition
| body outside of brain & spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in knee-jerk response |
|
Definition
1. hammer tap stretches tendon, which, in turn, stretches sensory receptors in leg extensor muscle
2. sensory neuron synapses with & excites motor neuron in the spinal cord; sensory neuron also excites spinal interneuron; interneuron synapse inhibits motor neuron to flexor muscles
3. motor neuron conducts action potential to synapses on extensor muscle fibers, causing contraction; flexor muscle relaxes because the activity of the motor neurons has been inhibited
4. leg extends |
|
|
Term
| sensory neuron, motor neuron (extensor), & interneuron --> increase or decrease activity with hammer tap? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| motor neuron (flexor) --> increase or decrease activity with hammer tap |
|
Definition
| decrease due to inhibitory signal from interneuron |
|
|
Term
| is the brain involved in the knee-jerk response reflex? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does number of genes equate to complexity of the organism? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what tells us what brain areas are involved in neurological processes |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| tells you how much oxygen is in your blood in certain brain areas |
|
|
Term
| which brain scan can help you sparse out activity just prior to movement vs activity at start of movement vs activity just after start of movement (ms time scale) |
|
Definition
| magnetoencephalography (MEG) |
|
|
Term
| one pro & one con for using EEG |
|
Definition
con: summarizing over a large area compared to how many neurons are in that area
pro: lets you have ms time resolution |
|
|
Term
| what type of study tells you what neurons are involved & how they process information in a task? |
|
Definition
| single-unit electrophysiological recording |
|
|
Term
| what do you make by this process: do many trials --> record neuron activity over the trials --> make histogram of activity across trials? |
|
Definition
| peri-stimulus time histogram (PSTH) |
|
|
Term
| what tells you average neuronal activity per unit time over many trials? |
|
Definition
| peri-stimulus time histogram (PSTH) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when cells are active --> change in calcium concentration --> increase in calcium causes neurons to glow due to a genetic marker |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| depolarizing via influx of calcium/sodium/protons/potassium |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| hyperpolarizing via influx of chloride |
|
|
Term
| which method involved light coming into brain to turn on/off specific neurons to cause a change in activity? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| striatal illumination, striatal recording --> laser increases or decreases firing? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| striatal illumination, SNr recording --> laser increases or decreases firing? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which technique uses electromagnetic coil to pulse a magnetic field to stimulate a cortical region by temporarily "lesioning" (disrupting electrical fields) certain brain regions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does an action potential stay within the cell or travel outside of it? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. ligand-gated
2. always open
3. voltage-gated
4. pressure-gated channels |
|
|
Term
| is movement of ions through channel relatively large or relatively small changes in voltage? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shortcut of Nernst Equation |
|
Definition
| E ion = (60/Z)(log[ion out]/[ion in]) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. resting
2. rising
3. overshoot
4. falling
5. undershoot
6. recovery |
|
|
Term
| membrane potential of a cell changes throughout an action potential because of _________ |
|
Definition
| voltage-gated ion channels |
|
|
Term
| what type of ion channel brings membrane voltage to very depolarized potentials during an AP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what type of ion channel opens second to repolarize membrane during an AP |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do action potentials move down axon without dissipating? |
|
Definition
| myelination (increasing the length constant) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. extracellular side
2. membrane crossing part
3. cytoplasmic side |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| whatever the voltage is across the cell membrane |
|
|
Term
| is equilibrium potential the same for each ion species? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| action potential occurs due to these 3 types of channels |
|
Definition
1. voltage gated sodium
2. voltage gated potassium
3. leak |
|
|
Term
| sodium potassium pump pumps sodium out & potassium in via ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is the sodium cycle of an AP fast or slow? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is the potassium cycle of an AP fast or slow? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| once various ion changes bring cell to threshold from resting potential --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| sodium channels = responsible for AP ______ phase |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do voltage gated potassium channels inactivate? |
|
Definition
| no...they are either open or closed |
|
|
Term
| are leak channels always open? |
|
Definition
| yes (they are just holes) |
|
|
Term
| how could you prove the importance of sodium & potassium in the AP phases? |
|
Definition
| change solution in which neuron sits & measure voltage change |
|
|
Term
| sodium conductance = start or end of action potential? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| potassium conductance = earlier or later in action potential? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is the difference in sodium/potassium channel dynamics so important? |
|
Definition
| it is why we even get action potentials |
|
|
Term
| even though ions can move through a channel in both ways, the net flow direction occurs due to ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| when action potential hyperpolarizes past resting potential closer to potassium equilibrium potential |
|
|
Term
| downward current = into or out of the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| upward current = into or out of the cell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what current trace do we usually see for an AP? |
|
Definition
| initial downward current (sodium) followed by upward current (potassium) |
|
|
Term
| when can sodium current become upward? |
|
Definition
| if you step up the voltage enough! |
|
|
Term
| when do you not see a current trace for a given ion? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blocks sodium channel (only see AP potassium current) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| blocks potassium channel (only see AP sodium current) |
|
|
Term
| important thing to remember when setting voltage to study the pharmacological separation of AP currents into sodium & potassium components |
|
Definition
| need to be stepping to a voltage where you would see both & sodium would be downward & potassium would be upward (such as 0 mV) |
|
|
Term
| does lidocaine work as well as TTX? |
|
Definition
| no; you see a shakier read out |
|
|
Term
| what ensure proper directionality of action potentials down axon? |
|
Definition
| inactivation of sodium channels |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| voltage wave flowing down an axon! |
|
|
Term
| solution to the fact that it is energetically costly to rejuvenate action potential all the way down axon at every spot |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| there is nowhere for charge to escape when it is wrapped with ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are all axons myelinated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do we need nodes of Ranvier? |
|
Definition
| signal will slightly degrade through myelinated sections & nodes give chance to re-boost |
|
|
Term
| autoimmune disease that attacks myelin-generating cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. cell-attached
2. whole-cell
3. inside-out
4. outside-in |
|
|
Term
| downward current means inward or outward flow? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| an axon is leaky...._______ help stops charge from leaking out |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can you record from a singular ion channel with patch clamp? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| recording from sodium channel --> you see? |
|
Definition
| downward current followed by nothing because of inactivation |
|
|
Term
| another name for gap junctions |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what type of synapse is where two sides of the synapse are basically connected |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do electrical synapses have vesicles? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| importance of electrical synapses |
|
Definition
| ensure that neuron 2 fires reliably every time that neuron 1 fires |
|
|
Term
| electrical synapses are often found in what brain region? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 steps of chemical synapse |
|
Definition
1. presynaptic neuron has vesicles containing neurotransmitter
2. vesicles merge with membrane to release neurotransmitter
3. neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptors to cause them to open
4. signal propagates |
|
|
Term
| 3 tests to see if we need calcium for vesicles to release |
|
Definition
1. block calcium channels & clamp voltage at action potential voltage
2. take all calcium out of the bath
3. do calcium imaging with a calcium sensitive dye and see where calcium goes |
|
|
Term
| extra neurotransmitter is cleaned up by _____ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 ways vesicles can be made |
|
Definition
1. in cell body
2. via presynaptic membrane due to clathrin activity |
|
|
Term
| how would you test if there is local recycling of neurotransmitter from extracellular space? |
|
Definition
| introduce a tagged chemical into extracellular space & follow it to see if you can eventually see it taken up into vesicles |
|
|
Term
| 4 things that form a snare complex to dock the vesicle |
|
Definition
1. synaptobrevin (from vesicle)
2. synaptotagmin (from vesicle)
3. syntaxin (from presynaptic membrane)
4. snap 25 (from presynaptic membrane) |
|
|
Term
| how would you test importance of various parts of the snare complex? |
|
Definition
| introduce a competitive molecule for binding |
|
|
Term
| how does botox affect presynaptic terminal? |
|
Definition
| attacks components of the snare complex |
|
|
Term
| 3 diseases that affect the presynaptic terminal |
|
Definition
1. making vesicles very small --> less neurotransmitter released for each vesicle fused with membrane
2. inhibiting vesicle recycling
3. triggering premature vesicle fusion (when they don't have neurotransmitter) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| protein that buds out presynaptic membrane to make more vesicles after fusion |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| structure of the nicotinic ACh receptor |
|
Definition
| 5 subunits come together to form a pore with ACh binding sites on the subunits |
|
|
Term
| subthreshold EPSPs will sum up to cause _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does synapse location affect its influence on postsynaptic potentials? |
|
Definition
| closer to soma = greater influence |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 things that make up ACh |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ACh receptors let in _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| ACh receptors are most notable for being on _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| implication of postsynaptic depolarization usually being sub-threshold |
|
Definition
| needs to sum up to cause an action potential |
|
|
Term
| where are postsynaptic densities usually found? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| activation of NMDA receptors --> can use calcium imaging to see ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does the name of receptor always match name of neurotranmsitter? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. dopamine
2. norepinephrine
3. epinephrine |
|
|
Term
| myasthenia gravis: repeated muscle use --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| metabotropic receptors rely on _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responds to ACh but no ions pass...instead reacts via g proteins |
|
|
Term
| are metabotropic receptors faster or slower acting than ionotropic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 ionotropic glutamate receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| metabotropic glutamate receptor |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| leftover glutamate in synaptic cleft is cleaned up by ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| presynaptic makes glutamate from glutamine via _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| sharp quick EPSC inward sodium current |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| slower kinetics, still inward EPSC |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in activation of AMPA receptor |
|
Definition
1. glutamate binds
2. receptor closes in around it
3. conformational change to pull apart transmembrane domain
4. sodium can pass through pore |
|
|
Term
| AMPA receptor is specific for ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| NMDA receptor has magnesium block at depolarized or hyperpolarized potentials |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 things that flow through NMDA receptors at depolarized potentials |
|
Definition
1. sodium in
2. potassium out
3. calcium in |
|
|
Term
| are NMDA receptor kinetics more like ionotropic or metabotropic? |
|
Definition
| metabotropic (even though it is an ionotropic receptor) |
|
|
Term
| 2 things NMDA needs to work |
|
Definition
1. depolarization
2. presence of glutamate |
|
|
Term
| what does calcium binding site do on NMDA receptor? |
|
Definition
| when calcium is bound, prevents desensitization |
|
|
Term
| ________ causes conformational change in NMDA receptor to try to open pore when bound |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 antagonist drugs that can block NMDA receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can glycine open NMDA receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 receptors that are the basis for long-term potentiation |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nitric oxide (NO) gets released with _______ process |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| nitric oxide allows postsynaptic cell to modulate presynaptic cell to increase or decrease glutamate release? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| metabotropic glutamate receptors activate _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 kinds of GABA receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is GABA thought of as typically inhibitory or excitatory? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| GABA & glycine are cleaned up by _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| stimulate presynaptic GABAergic neuron --> see _______ in postsynaptic neuron |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 examples of other chemicals that activate ionotropic GABA receptors (agonists) |
|
Definition
1. benzodiazepine
2. ketamine
3. inhalant anesthetics
4. ethanol |
|
|
Term
| immature neuron --> open GABA allows chloride to flow _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mature neuron --> open GABA allows chloride to flow _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are catecholamines all ionotropic or metabotropic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| catecholamine neurotransmitters act in a ______ manner |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 places that make dopamine |
|
Definition
1. substantia nigra
2. ventral tegmental area |
|
|
Term
| 2 things dopamine is very important for |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| metabotropic receptors for catecholamine neurotransmitters use _______ to cause effects |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 metabotropic monoamines that aren't catecholamines |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is serotonin important for? |
|
Definition
| modulating arousal state (why it goes all over the brain) |
|
|
Term
| are neuropeptides or monoamines more diverse in terms of amino acid sequence? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are neuropeptides all ionotropic or metabotropic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| another name for neuropeptides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 ways to make an addictive drug |
|
Definition
1. prevent reuptake as well as desensitization
2. cause presynaptic cell to release more dopamine/serotonin etc.
3. ideal neurotransmitters to effect: dopamine
4. increase the amount of receptors |
|
|
Term
| speed of calcium entering vs leaving a cell |
|
Definition
| Ca in is quick, Ca out is slow |
|
|
Term
| LTP presynaptic terminal releases ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| dendritic spine of postsynaptic neuron in LTP has ________ receptors that bind glutamate |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| LTP eventually results in insertion of additional _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the brain's ability to reorganize itself in response to stimuli (environment, injury, physiological changes) |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| repeated spikes in presynaptic membrane potential --> _______ in postsynaptic membrane potential |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| amount of facilitation tends to decrease as the time interval between stimuli increases or decreases? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do you visualize higher or lower CaMKII activity after stimulation compared to control? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in initial phase of LTP |
|
Definition
1. calcium enters dendritic spines of postsynaptic neuron via NMDA receptor
2. activates calcium calmodulin in the cell
3. activates protein kinases
4. affects AMPA receptors |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in late phase of LTP |
|
Definition
1. protein kinases activate cAMP
2. activates protein kinase A
3. activates CREB in the nucleus
4. transcriptional regulators & synapse growth proteins that affect AMPA & NMDA receptors |
|
|
Term
| after LTP, you see more ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| in what condition will some synapses show no responses to stimulation? |
|
Definition
| certain hyperpolarized voltages |
|
|
Term
| example of a silent synapse |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in circuit of hippocampus |
|
Definition
1. perforant path (from entorhinal cortex)
2. granule cell (in dentate gyrus)
3. CA3 pyramidal cell (in CA3) via mossy fibers
4. CA1 pyramidal cell (in CA1) via Schaffer collaterals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pathway 1 onto neuron: strong stimulation --> synapse strengthened
pathway 2 onto neuron: weak stimulation but at same time as pathway 1 strong stimulation --> synapse strengthened |
|
|
Term
| presynaptic terminal in LTD in hippocampus |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 steps in dendritic spine of postsynaptic neuron in hippocampus LTD |
|
Definition
1. sodium in through AMPA receptor
2. calcium in through NMDA receptor --> affects protein phosphatases --> affects AMPA receptors/other substrates
3. clathrin pulls receptors out of the membrane into the sorting endosome |
|
|
Term
| LTD in cerebellum: stimulate ______ & record from _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| climbing fiber depolarizes membrane potential --> synapse with associated parallel fiber is strengthened or weakened? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| if you pair climbing fiber & parallel fiber input --> parallel fiber EPSP amplitude will ________ |
|
Definition
| decrease & stay down over time |
|
|
Term
| where is inferior olivary nucleus located? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| functional role of olivary nucleus |
|
Definition
| motor timing/motor learning |
|
|
Term
| if the cerebellum sends information to an incorrect movement, the _______ will correct it so that movement isn't done in the future |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what encodes for corrective adjustments in movement? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do climbing fibers respond to injury? |
|
Definition
| they show remarkable regeneration |
|
|
Term
| dorsal root ganglion is located where? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| injury to dorsal root ganglion causes? |
|
Definition
| constant pain, signals being sent to brain without true stimulus (such as pain, intense temperature sensation, etc.) |
|
|
Term
| dorsal root ganglion is important for ______ |
|
Definition
| transmitting sensory information via two main kinds of neurons (mechanosensors & nociceptors) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| controls the tongue/mouth |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| reflexes such as gag reflex/slow heart/sweating |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| injury to reticular formation --> ? |
|
Definition
| dizziness, narcoleptic episodes, problems with balance/eyesight, problems with pain modulation (innocuous things seem painful) |
|
|
Term
| reticular formation = bundle of nuclei within the brainstem necessary for ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the pons located? |
|
Definition
| group of neurons just below the midbrain, above medulla oblongata |
|
|
Term
| pons works as a massive switchboard connection between _______ & _______ |
|
Definition
| cerebral cortex & cerebellum |
|
|
Term
| over 90% of neurons coming down from midbrain synapse through the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| pons are important for ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| central pontine myelinolysis |
|
Definition
| difficulty swallowing, slurred speech, hallucinations |
|
|
Term
| what causes locked-in syndrome? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the zona incerta located? |
|
Definition
| just above subthalamic nucleus |
|
|
Term
| zona incerta is involved in what response? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| PD symptoms can be ameliorated by stimulating _______ with DBS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| inner ear, body balance, posture |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 3 cranial verges that come from pons |
|
Definition
1. facial
2. vestibulocochlear
3. glossopharyngeal |
|
|
Term
| where is basal forebrain located? |
|
Definition
| in front of/below striatum |
|
|
Term
| major cholinergic output of CNS |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| injury to basal forebrain can cause ______ |
|
Definition
| problems with brain cell communication, impaired learning, impaired memory |
|
|
Term
| basal forebrain has substantial connections to ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| upward & downward movement of eye & eye roll |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| provide branches to different parts of the face (mid third) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| moves eyes from side to side |
|
|
Term
| what test is used to test your optic nerve? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where does your oculomotor nerve run? |
|
Definition
| front of midbrain (oculomotor nucleus & accessory parasymapthetic neurons) --> back of eye sockets |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| touch, pressure, vibration |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why are mechanoreceptors used to feel touch? |
|
Definition
| they are sensitive to the movement of the membrane |
|
|
Term
| 2 different kinds of skin |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| slowly adapting receptors |
|
Definition
| constantly firing throughout the stimulus |
|
|
Term
| rapidly adapting receptors |
|
Definition
| fires at onset of stimulus & again at offset...not throughout the touch |
|
|
Term
| larger axon = faster or slower conduction velocity |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| the portion of sensory space that can elicit a response in a neuron |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| moving two objects closer together on your skin & poking --> ? |
|
Definition
| they will eventually feel like one |
|
|
Term
| receptor endings in skin --> ______ |
|
Definition
| dorsal root ganglion cells in spinal cord |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| area of skin innervated by the dorsal roots of a single spinal segemtn |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in main touch pathway |
|
Definition
1. sensory afferents
2. gracile/cuneate nucleus (crosses midline here)
3. thalamus
4. S1 |
|
|
Term
| topographic mapping of the body's surface sensations onto the brain |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where is the somatosensory cortex (S1)? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are the representations of different parts of the body in the brain uniform in terms of their touch reception? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are younger or older brains more plastic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what system is very highly represented in rat-unuclus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do all rodents have the same number of whiskers in the same position? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how is barrel cortex (S1) organized? |
|
Definition
| each barrel corresponds to a specific whisker |
|
|
Term
| is homunculus conserved in somatosensory cortex? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the cognitive process that goes along with sensation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| you feel things on your missing hand but you cannot address the sensation |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pro: serves as a learning experience to avoid something harmful
con: can be overdone |
|
|
Term
| pain perception is based in part by processing of _______ inputs |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 4 cells responsible for touch |
|
Definition
1. Merkel
2. Meissner
3. Pacinian
4. Ruffini |
|
|
Term
| is acute pain felt with more or less myelin? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are c fibers slower or faster than a delta? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why does referred pain exist? |
|
Definition
| parts of the nervous system develop together |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| signals pain (the cognitive perception of pain) |
|
|
Term
| pain signal decussates in the ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is pain signal carried up the spinal cord on the same or opposite side as senstation? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| mechanoreceptor afferents go up same or opposite side on dorsal column |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is difference in pain vs touch going up spinal cord evolutionarily advantageous? |
|
Definition
| if you get a lesion on one side of the spinal cord, at least one of these signals will still be able to come up from that side of the body |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| molecule found in spicy peppers |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| goes through the membrane & binds to inside of a receptor to cause it to open & is perceived as heat (what it normally responds to)! |
|
|
Term
| 3 receptors activated by intense cold |
|
Definition
1. TRP-M8
2. TRP-A1
3. Na(V)1.8 |
|
|
Term
| why do you feel pain as you start to warm up? |
|
Definition
| c fibers can fire once they are no longer numbed out |
|
|
Term
| 3 steps in sensory-discriminative (first pain) |
|
Definition
1. anterolateral system
2. ventral posterior lateral nucleus
3. somatosensory cortex (S1, S2) |
|
|
Term
| how is reticular formation important for pain? |
|
Definition
| important for arousal --> forces you to pay attention to the pain |
|
|
Term
| how is amygdala important for pain? |
|
Definition
| emotional --> how you're processing what happened with the pain/to cause the pain |
|
|
Term
| PAG does a lot of what signal? |
|
Definition
| descending modulating pain signal |
|
|
Term
| 2 things descending information in response to pain can do |
|
Definition
1. cause muscle reactions to respond to pain
2. turn on inhibitory interneuron to turn off incoming pain signal in spinal cord |
|
|
Term
| GABAergic PAG neuron contains _______ receptors |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 6 reasons you may not feel pain even if a c fiber neuron fires strongly |
|
Definition
1. if you apply another stimulus (ex. pressure to the area) you may not feel it
2. if you have a spinal cord injury the signal may not get to the brain
3. the descending pain pathway may be turning it off via an interneuron
4. somatosensory part of the brain may be damaged
5. insufficient signal - just one neuron
6. perception is cognitively interpreted otherwise |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in common sensory modality pathway |
|
Definition
1. receptors
2. projection to thalamus
3. thalamic relay to primary cortex
4. secondary cortices |
|
|
Term
| frequency of sound waves --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| amplitude of sound waves --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| cochlea contains ______ nerve |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| basilar membrane moves up & down in response to _______ |
|
Definition
| vibrations/endolymph movement |
|
|
Term
| signals from outer hair cells are efferent meaning they _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| signals to inner hair cells are afferent meaning they _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| when you pay visual attention to something, does your sensitivity to sound increase or decrease? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| high pitched sound that doesn't have an actual grounding in the real world |
|
|
Term
| tympanic membrane vibrates in response to _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| translates the vibration from tympanic membrane to oval window of cochlea |
|
|
Term
| 4 steps in neural signal of sound |
|
Definition
1. sound induced vibration
2. shearing force (back & forth movement) on cilia
3. activates stretch receptors
4. neural signal of sound |
|
|
Term
| to different neurons response to different sounds? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do higher frequency pitches (tighter together waves) travel well down membrane? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do potassium ions flow in hair cells (hearing)? |
|
Definition
| in to depolarize the cell |
|
|
Term
| what is the advantage of hair cells for hearing not needing APs? |
|
Definition
| we get an incredible amount of temporal resolution |
|
|
Term
| why don't you need APs in hair cells for hearing? |
|
Definition
| cell actually sits at around -45 mV |
|
|
Term
| break the round window (make it shut) --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| break one of the bones in the middle of the ear --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| higher vs lower frequency layout in cochlea? |
|
Definition
| higher frequencies will be transmitted towards connection with window, lower frequencies will be transmitted in the middle of the spiral |
|
|
Term
| 3 steps in auditory pathway |
|
Definition
1. sound comes up through pons
2. decussates in a parallel fashion (signal splits where some decussates & some doesn't)
3. up to sensory cortex (doesn't stop at thalamus!) |
|
|
Term
| how do you identify where a sound is coming from? |
|
Definition
| sound comes into both cochleas but will hit the one first that it is closer in space to the sound |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| the place where neurons are where spatial orientation of hearing happens |
|
|
Term
| MSO & LSO are nuclei in the ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| LSO gets stimulated based upon _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why are owls really good at hearing? |
|
Definition
| their ears are located at different places & can turn their heads to orient them differently |
|
|
Term
| MSO & LSO send their information to _______ |
|
Definition
| auditory cortex (where sounds are put together to be perceived) |
|
|
Term
| how can you pay attention to specific voice when multiple people are talking? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| responsible for figuring out where your head is which will pretty much tell us where our body is in the world |
|
|
Term
| why does calcium carbonate crystal coat the hair cells in the semi-circular canals? |
|
Definition
| causes them to move more intensely & also in response to gravity as opposed to stretch |
|
|
Term
| light comes in through ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| back side of the eye is covered by ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| information goes out to the brain from eye via ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. emmetropia (normal)
2. myopia (nearsighted)
3. hyperopia (farsighted) |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| a series of neurons the same thickness as about a few sheets of paper |
|
|
Term
| retina only response to ______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why does the retina have 5 different kinds of neurons? |
|
Definition
| all have distinct shapes/functions to help the eye integrate different kinds of information |
|
|
Term
| two types of photoreceptors |
|
Definition
1. rods = light VS dark vision
2. cones = color |
|
|
Term
| photoreceptors have many _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| where does light come into photoreceptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what cleans out disks that break down in the eye? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what serves as a couple layers of cells to protect rods/cones |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why does epithelial tissue have pigment? |
|
Definition
| we want light to be reflected back |
|
|
Term
| in the dark, ion channels allow ________ to come in |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why are ion channels open in the dark? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| neurons are depolarized in the light or dark? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does light turn off ion channels? |
|
Definition
| causes transducen to activate PDE which cleaves cyclic GMP |
|
|
Term
| one advantage of eyes being active in the dark & hyperpolarized in light |
|
Definition
| eyes are using less energy when you are in light --> when the rest of your body is more active your eyes are taking up less energy |
|
|
Term
| neuron sends out less glutamate signals in the presence of light or dark? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| fast transient on followed by a fast transient off |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
1. red (peaks at 564 nm wavelength)
2. green (peaks at 534)
3. blue (peaks at 420) |
|
|
Term
| do the types of cones have a wide or small range of wavelengths they activate to? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| which type of cone came the earliest evolutionarily? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do people have color blindness? |
|
Definition
| they're not actually missing a cone, it's that the colors that the cones respond to have overlapped so they send identical signals to a given wavelength of color |
|
|
Term
| trichromatic theory for the retina |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| maximally optimal range for rods peaks at _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can people have small variances in their actual cones? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do some animals have more cones than we do? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| huge concentration of cones at the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| rods concentration peak ________ |
|
Definition
| near fovea but a little bit out to the side on either direction |
|
|
Term
| why don't we have photoreceptors around the whole eye? |
|
Definition
| we don't need to see everywhere, so this is a way to conserve energy |
|
|
Term
| are there many or a few cells between choroid & receptors in fovea? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do we have rod nuclei in the fovea? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| choroid produces too much pigment --> leaks onto surface of eye --> person loses ability to use rods first --> eventually goes blind |
|
|
Term
| photoreceptors release more glutamate in light or dark? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| 2 kinds of ganglion cells |
|
Definition
1. off center bipolar
2. on center bipolar |
|
|
Term
| on center bipolar = ionotropic or metabotropic glutamate receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| off center bipolar = ionotropic or metabotropic glutamate receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shine light --> off bipolar cells are depolarized or hyperpolarized? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| shine light --> on bipolar cells are depolarized or hyperpolarized? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how do horizontal cells work as a feedback? |
|
Definition
| when their associate neurons are active, they turn off the cells around them |
|
|
Term
| horizontal cells work via _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how does the spread of horizontal cells change from fovea --> periphery? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| connect various kinds of cells with the retinal ganglion cells |
|
|
Term
| what cells allow for high-def viewing of motion? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| visual information bifurcation happens at the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| _______ is composed of photoreceptors which synapse onto bipolar cells which synapse onto amacrine cells |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| horizontal cells do _______ inhibition |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are the 6 cortical layers conserved across the entire brain? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| what is lateral inhibition at the level of the eye important for? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| integrating signals from both eyes gives us _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| where information from eyes crosses over |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| takes information from optic nerve & ships it off to primary visual areas |
|
|
Term
| are different areas of the brain innervated by different layers of the LGN? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| chop off the optic nerve --> ? |
|
Definition
| lose input of all information from that eye |
|
|
Term
| lesion optic chiasm --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lesion the optic tract (just after optic chiasm) --> ? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| lesion dorsal projections from LGN up to primary cortex --> ? |
|
Definition
| lose your dorsal visual field |
|
|
Term
| lesion projections from the LGN to the striate cortex (very far in the back) --> ? |
|
Definition
| lose that side of vision BUT you retain your fovea |
|
|
Term
| projections from LGN are responsible for _______ |
|
Definition
| flipping information from the eye so that the cortical representation of the world is the right way |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| controls pupillary response |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| takes in a lot of information & sends it out to many layers & many other places |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| goes to the superior colliculus |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| can neurons in V1 be specific for orientation in a specific spot? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is the pattern of orientation selectivity repeated across space in cortical columns of V1? |
|
Definition
| you can sense edges in various parts of your view |
|
|
Term
| importance of the layers of LGN |
|
Definition
| each layer gets specific visual input & sends information to the specific cortical columns |
|
|
Term
| does information from both eyes mix in the LGN? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| inferior temporal cortex (IT) = "where" or "what" pathway |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why can higher order processing remember where things were in visual space? |
|
Definition
| decision making requires acquiring evidence over time to it needs higher order processing |
|
|
Term
| what you smell are _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is smell specific or a spectrum? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are smell receptors ionotropic or metabotropic? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| indole smell in low vs high concentrations |
|
Definition
low: smells floral
high: smells putrid (like rotting vegetables) |
|
|
Term
| l-carvone vs d-carvone smell |
|
Definition
d = spearment, c = caraway
just a slight difference in conformation of same chemical! |
|
|
Term
| olfactory bulb sits above _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| olfactory system is protected by ________ |
|
Definition
| olfactory epithelial tissue |
|
|
Term
| olfactory neurons project to ________ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| olfactory nerve goes into the _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| does smell involve relay in the thalamus? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| is sense of space encoded in sense of smell? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are smell receptors regenerated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
pros: works to keep neuron safe as best as it can
cons: can harbor harmful things like biofilm |
|
|
Term
| neurons sense smell with _______ |
|
Definition
| cilia that have receptors in them |
|
|
Term
| what kind of odorants can we smell |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| odorant transduction works via ionotropic or metabotropic receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| do neurons respond differently to different scent compounds? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are some neurons more specific for smells than others? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| are smell projecting neurons myelinated? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| neurons tuned to different scent compounds project to different _______ |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why do other animals have better sense of smell? |
|
Definition
| larger parts of their brains dedicated to olfactory bulbs |
|
|
Term
| do different parts of the brain process different smells? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| example of an inborn difference in smell perception |
|
Definition
| differential patterns of activation in the hypothalamus of a typical human female & male respond differently to estrogen |
|
|
Term
| do we have a vomeronasal system? |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| how other organisms smell water-bound chemicals |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why is the vomeronasal organ on the bottom of the nasal cavity? |
|
Definition
| liquid will fall to the bottom compared to the airborne chemicals |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| taste buds are distributed around the tongue that project to their secondary neurons up to thalamus and out to taste cortices |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| why are tongues/taste buds invaginated? |
|
Definition
| increases surface area to allow us to taste more |
|
|
Term
| taste pore has several different types of taste cells that project to the ________ |
|
Definition
| gustatory centers of the brain |
|
|
Term
| why do taste buds need regeneration? |
|
Definition
| vulnerability to outside environment |
|
|
Term
| how do we sense the five different taste types (sour, sweet, bitter, salty, umami) |
|
Definition
| taken in on different parts of the tongue |
|
|
Term
| do different sense of taste rely upon different receptors? |
|
Definition
|
|
