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| 1 cm=10 mm and 2.54 cm=1 inch and 25.4 mm=1 inch |
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| observe the natural system, design an experiment, objective and repeatable tests, modify or add to hypothesis, repeat tests |
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| Faith Based Approaches to Interpreting Phenomena |
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| If you can't prove it, its not a scientific issue (religion emphasizes this) EX: God put boulders where they are |
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Crust- firm ground we live on
Mantle- semi-molten rocks that move plate tectonics
Outer core- Molten rocks
Inner Core- Solid mass of iron and magnesium |
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| Age of Earth, age of universe |
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| Earth is about 4.65 billion years old, the universe is about 13 billion years old |
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| interacting geosystems (i.e. lakes). all processes depend on energy |
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| energy comes from the hot core (leftover energy from when Earth formed) causes mountain building, earthquakes, volcanoes, plate tectonics |
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| Energy from the sun that drives processes like the water cycle |
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| Evidence for Continental Drift |
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| Alfred Wegner-Matching of Continental Outlines, Paleontological evidence, common rock layers, glacial evidence |
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| Problems with theory of continental drift |
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| no theory as to how the continents moved, evidence is all from the land, most of the evidence is in the southern hemisphere |
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| Evidence for seafloor spreading |
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| Driving Forces of Plate tectonics |
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| convections currents from within the mantle where hot material rises in the middle and cool material sinks along the sides |
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| Divergent Plate Boundaries |
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| plates move apart creating a spreading ridge where new oceanic crust can be made or a valley appears EX: Mid-Atlantic Ridge |
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| two plates collide into one another |
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| the oceanic plate goes under the continental plate and is recycled back into the mantle. usually causes mountains or volcanoes because of melting rocks due to pressure and evaporating water and a very deep trench EX: Peru Chile- Andes Mountains |
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| continent-continent convergent boundary |
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| one plate slightly subducts and pushes the other plate up creating a massive mountain range. India and Eurasian plate |
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| two plates slip past each other in opposite directions, very likely to cause earthquakes Ex. San Andreas Fault |
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| the release of built up energy that occurs when the plates slip in an earthquake, the plates that were originally folded but go back to the unstressed state |
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| the area on the surface of land directly above the spot where the earthquake originated |
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| the exact spot underground where the earthquake occurred, distance from the focus determines how much damage occurs |
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| compressional waves, the first waves to arrive at a seismograph at any given location, the fastest waves |
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| Sheer Waves, the second group of waves to arrive, usually larger and closer together than P Waves |
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| move over earth's surface not through the core, many different kinds, the slowest waves, create the most ground motion |
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| Evidence of Seafloor Spreading |
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| rock record of magnetic reversals of earth, seafloor ages farther from spreading ridge, deep sea drilling for age of different layers |
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| about 12 plates of lithosphere that float on the mantle and result in the formation of mountains, deep valleys, trenches, volcanoes |
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| thin plumes of fast rising material from the deep mantle that are located in the middle of plates EX: Hawaiian islands |
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| either move by convection currents within the mantle or from the gravitational pull of the cold slabs of lithosphere sinking into the mantle |
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| First way of measuring the magnitude of an earthquake |
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| Currently used system for measuring the magnitude of an earthquake. Each step is a power of 10 more than the lower level EX: M6 is 1 in of ground motion and a M7 is 10 in |
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| gives a number to a particular location to show how intense the shaking was at a given location |
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| Divergent Boundaries(Don't occur very often), Transform Fault Boundaries(more common), Convergent Boundaries( produce largest earthquakes on earth) |
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| The plate on the right moves down and the plate on the left moves up |
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| The plate on the left moves down and the plate on the right moves up |
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| Earthquake Hazards to Humans |
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| ground shaking, fire (ruptured gas pipes), soil liquification (soft soil allows heavier material to sink through), tsunamis |
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| Earthquake Hazard Mitigation |
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| Restrictive Land use planning in dangerous areas, disaster preparation, earthquake resistant building design |
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| Earthquake Resistant Building Designs |
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| Cross Braces, Counterweights, increase the strength of floor/column attachment, reinforce the concrete with steel rebar |
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| Short term Earthquake forcasting |
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| not reliable, no set formula, have been a few successful examples |
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| long term earthquake forecasting |
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| largely inaccurate, just looking at the average time between earthquakes to predict when new ones will occur |
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| naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline structure, solid, definite composition |
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| Result from the crystallization of magma or lava, may occur within the earth or at the surface |
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| formed by the consolidation of material derived from pre-existing rocks, form from sediment washed by rivers or sediment scraped off plate |
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| Rocks that are changed by heat or pressure, |
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| Igneous rock is formed and eroded down from weathering, sediments of igneous rock collect and form sedimentary rock and are changed by heat or pressure into a metamorphic rock, the metamorphic rock is melted down and forms an igneous rock |
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| sum of an elements protons and neutrons |
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| equal to the number of protons in the nucleus |
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| chemical bond formed by electrical attraction of ions of opposite charge |
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| chemical bond formed by elements sharing electrons |
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| plate tectonics, convections currents, heat rising up from earth's core, cause land formations (mountains, volcanoes) |
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| sun heats land which heats up atmosphere, rain erodes the mountains that plate tectonics build up, wind creates waves |
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| With no internal processes |
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| earth would be flat, barren landscape, no fresh soil for growing, no magnetic field, flooding of continents |
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| with no external processes(keep sun but no rain) |
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| dry no rainfall, no distribution of water, lots of mountains because nothing will wear them down, no wind (no air circulation), no waves (no water circulation), higher elevation means less warm climate areas |
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| form in magma plutons beneath the surface of earth, usually crystallize slowly resulting in coarse grained texture |
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| usually formed when magma cools quickly after a volcanic eruption, fine grained, very diverse, can be pyroclastic or vesicular, midocean ridges |
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| Temperature melting(partial melting of rocks at high enough temperatures), pressure melting(deeper in earth the pressure increases and lowers the melting point), water melting(water in the rocks gets evaporated and causes the rocks' melting points to drop) |
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| rocks melt spontaneously as pressure decreases below a point. produces huge volumes of molten rock, process forms basalts on the seafloor |
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| how do large collections of granite exist when a liquified rock, 10 times that volume would have been needed |
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| possible solutions to room problem |
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assimilation- melting of surrounding rock, doesn't work b/c the chemistry doesn't match
forceful injection-magma has been pushed up from below to fill voids, would see deformation of surrounding rocks (non-existent) |
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| mafic rocks, highly fluid magma, magma from the mantle. shape: broad and rounded and occur at spreading ridges and hot spots |
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| Strato (Composite) Volcanoes |
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| Intermediate magma, medium viscosity(variable), mix of mantle and continental crust. shape: steep sides usually produce ash found in subduction zones |
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| Felsic rocks, magma from the continental crust, very thick magma, pressure builds up and causes a huge explosive eruption, found in continental interiors |
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| the resistance of material to flow |
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| more explosive and variable, more ash |
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| less likely to occur but are the most explosive and destruction with large amounts of ash |
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| lahars(mud flows), ash, lava, |
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| Volcanic Hazard Prediction |
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| measure the inflation of the volcano(building pressure), measure temperature(steam, hot springs), measure gas(SO2) emissions, look for small earthquakes moving towards summit of volcano |
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| long term prediction of volcanoes |
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| hazard maps (look at previous lava flows and ash dispersion over a landscape) |
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| an explosion that slowly built up so people weren't as worried about leaving. resulted in a massive explosion that killed more people than there needed to be |
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| volcano swelled with lava on one side which resulted in a massive collapse of one side of the mountain and an eruption that went out horizontally as well as straight up |
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| resulted from the mountains created by india and eurasia pushing the mountains towards China. resulted in the collapses of a lot of schools and destruction in rural areas |
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