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| .7 to 2.7 billion years ago |
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| carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and other gases from the planet’s interio |
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| climate evolves regulated by: |
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| actors including solar luminosity and atmospheric CO2, Rock weathering and volcanism |
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| humankind's earliest ancestors |
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| respiration that uses oxygen and produces carbon monoxide |
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| respiration in the absence of oxygen, often producing methane |
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| a movement of energy from one place to another, as in the flows of solar and geothermal energy that brings energy to Earth’s surface |
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| a hydrocarbon fuel formed over tens to hundreds of millions of years from once-living matter, containing stored solar energy originally captures by photosynthetic plants: coal, oil, and natural gas are the common fossil fuels |
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| energy form Earth’s interior |
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| an atmospheric gas that absorbs infrared radiation; water vapor and carbon dioxide are the most important greenhouse gases |
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| the atmospheric layer above the stratosphere, characterized by a temperature that decreases with altitude |
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| a feedback effect that tens to diminish the original charge |
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| the region of the stratosphere containing ozone that absorbs solar ultraviolet radiation |
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| the process whereby green plants take in carbon dioxide and solar energy to make carbohydrates that serve as energy sources for life |
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| the second level of the atmosphere extending form the troposphere to some 50 km |
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| the atmospheric layer above the mesosphere, characterized by hot, diffuses gas whose temperature increases with altitude |
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| energy originating in the motions of Earth and Moon, resulting in ocean tides |
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| the lowest level of the atmosphere, extending 8 to 18 km above the surface |
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| the boundary between the troposphere and stratosphere |
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| the rate at which we use or produce energy |
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| standard unit for power - about one-hundredth of the power output of a typical human, equal to 1 J/s |
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| energy used by humans in north america |
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| about 100x the energy our bodies produce |
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| 4 energy consumption sectors |
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| residential, commercial, industrial, and transportation |
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| worlds dominant energy source |
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| a measure of energy consumption per unit of GDP (gross domestic product) |
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| a measure of the total economic value of a country’s goods and services |
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| the energy of moving objects |
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| energy of chemical fuels is ultimately stored in... |
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| the electric fields associated with molecular configurations |
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| the product of the force and the distance the object moves |
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| Doing work on an object... |
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| formula for kinetic energy where m is the objects mass and v is its speed |
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| a force that dissipates energy, turning the energy of motion into less useful forms (like heat) |
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| an energy unit equal to 6.12 GJ: the energy contained on one 42-gallon barrel of oil |
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| a device that uses chemical reactions to separate electric charge and thus supply electrical energy |
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| an energy unit equal to 1,054 joules; the energy needed to raise 1 pound of water by 1 degree F |
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| a fundamental property of matter that comes in two kinds (+ and-) and that gives rise to electric fields |
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| a flow of electric charge |
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| the influence of electric charge on the space around it, giving rise to electric forces on other charges; also arises form a changing magnetic field |
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| energy stored in the altered configuration of elastic materials such as rubber bands and springs |
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| electromagnetic induction: |
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| a fundamental phenomenon whereby a changing magnetic fields produces an electric fields; the basis of electric generators and essential for the existence of electromagnetic wavs |
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| electromagnetic radiation |
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| a flow of electromagnetic energy in the forms of electromagnetic waves |
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| a wave of self-regenerating electric and magnetic fields that propagates through empty spaces, carrying electromagnetic energy; light is one example of an electromagnetic wave |
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| a force that ate between two surfaces to oppose their relative motion |
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| a device that uses a steady stream of fuel to produce electricity directly, without combustion; hydrogen fuel cells, which combine hydrogen and oxygen are particularly promising and produce only water as a by product |
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| the force tat every piece of matter exerts on every other piece |
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| gravitational potential energy |
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| potential energy associated with objects that have been lifted against gravity |
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| unit of power equal to 746 watts |
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| the influence of moving electric charge on the space around it, giving rise to magnetic forces on other moving charged; also arises from a changing electric field |
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| the SI unit of force, equal to 1 kg*m/s2 |
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| he strong, short-ranging force that binds neutrons and protons in the atomic nucleus |
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| a particle-like bundle of electromagnetic wave energy |
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| a semiconductor device that converts light energy directly into electricity |
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| a fundamental constant of nature that quantifies the essential “ graininess” of nature in quantum physics |
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| 1 quadrillion (10^15) btu |
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| a battery capable of storing electrical energy via chemical reactions when current is run “backward” through the battery |
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| unit of mass; 1 ton is 1 English ton, or 2000 pounds; 1 tonne (or metric ton)is 1,000kg or 2,200 pounds, roughly the same as 1 ton |
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| an energy unit equal to 41.9GJ; the energy contained in 1 metric ton of oil |
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| the force that gravity exerts on an object; near Earth’s surface, weights is the product of mass and the strength of gravity (mg) |
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| energy that flows because of temperature difference. |
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| the kinetic energy of random molecular motion |
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| The first law of thermodynamics |
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| the change in internal energy is the sum of the mechanical work done on an object and the heat that flows into it |
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| measures the average thermal energy of molecules |
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| common temperature scales |
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| (Celcius) C) and Fahrenheit (F) as well as the Kelvin (K), which is based on absolute zero |
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| conduction, convection, radiation |
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| mechanical and electrical energy |
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| example of lower quality energy |
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| second law of thermodynamics |
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| prohibits the transformation of low-quality energy into high-quality energy with 100 percent efficiency |
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| the lowest possible temperature, corresponding to a system’s state of minimal energy |
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| a heat engine that provides the theoretical maximum efficiency |
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| the process whereby fuel energy is used to produce both electricity and heat for industrial use for space heating, thus putting to use the waster heat required by the second law of thermodynamics |
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| heat flow by physical contact, when energy s transferred by collisions among molecules |
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| heat transfer by the bulk motion of a fluid (or air) |
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| a number between 0 and 1 that gives the efficient with which material radiates electromagnetic waves; equal to the efficient of absorptions at a given wavelength |
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| a measure of disorder; systems with higher entropy have lower energy quality |
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| external-combustion engine |
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Definition
| a heat engine in which combustion takes place outside the cylinders or other chambers holding the engines working fluid; an example is a steam power plant |
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| convection driven by a mechanical device such as a fan or pump, or by wind |
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| a measure of the energy required to raise a particular objects temperature, in SI, its units are J/K or J/C |
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| a device that extracts thermal energy from a hot source and delivers mechanical energy; the second law of thermodynamics states that this process cannot be 100 percent efficient |
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| the energy per unit mass required to change a material form the solid to the liquid state |
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| the energy per unit mass required to effect a phase transition |
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| the energy per unit mass required to change material from a liquid to a gas |
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| a refrigerator operated so as to transfer heat form exterior air or the ground into a building for purposes of heating; can also operate in reverse to provide summer cooling |
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| internal-combustion engine |
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| a heat engine in which combustions takes place within closed chamber, such as the cylinders of a gasoline engine |
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| a thermodynamics process that converts some mechanical energy into random thermal energy, resulting in a loss of energy quality |
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| the SI temperature scale; a temperature difference of 1K is the same as a difference of 1 C, but the zero in the Kelvin scale is absolute zero (-273K) |
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| the energy stored in a material as a result of its having changed from a lower to a high-energy phase |
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| convection that occurs naturally when a fluid is heated and the warm fluid then ruses, carrying energy upwards |
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| the energy input to a system such as a power plant, including any that ends up as waste |
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| energy flow by electromagnetic waves |
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| a measure of the insulating value of a material; in English units, an R value of 1 corresponds to an energy loss rate of 1 btu/hour through every square foot for every degree Fahrenheit temperature difference across the material |
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| thermal energy associated with an objects being at a given temperature; as opposed to latent heat |
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| a measure of the energy per unit mass required to raise a materials temperature; in SI, its units are J/kg*K or J/kg*C |
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| Stefan-Boltzmann constant |
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Definition
the constant in the Stefan-Boltzman law, given by o=5.67X10^-8W/m2*K4
“ law: the statement that the power radiated form an object with surface area A and emissivity e at temperature T is given by P=eoAT4 |
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| a measure of the average thermal energy of the molecules in a a substance (T) |
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| (k) a measure of a materials ability to conduct heat |
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| energy associated with random thermal motion of molecules; also called internal energy |
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| waste heat typically from a power plant, discharged to the environment and possibly disrupting the local ecology |
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| the theoretical maximum efficiency for heat engine, given by e=1-(Tc/Tb), where Tb and Tc are the maximum and minimum temperatures, respectively |
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| total primary energy supply |
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| the total primary energy supplied to a country or the world |
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| coal, oil, and natural gas |
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| solar energy captured by plants tens to hundreds of million of years ago |
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| made of carbon & hydrogen (fossil fuels) |
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| burning fossil fuels produces |
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| extract energy from fossil fuels with |
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| external-combustion engines such as electric power plants and with internal-combustion engines for transportation |
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| Resources limitations become severe when... |
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| production peaks and then declines even as demand continues to increase |
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| one approach to reducing fossil fuel consumptions |
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| black solid fossil fuel high in carbon |
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| combined-cycle power plant |
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| a power plant using gas turbines whose waste heat then drives a conventional steam cycle, result ins in high overall efficiency |
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| compression-ignitions engine |
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| an intermittent-combustion engine in which fuel ignites as the fuel-air mixture in the cylinders heated by compression to ignition temperature, as in diesel engines |
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| i a steam power plant, the device in which steam is re condensed to water |
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| continuous-combustion engine |
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| a heat engine in which combustion takes place continuously, as in a power plant, in contrast to the intermittent combustion gasoline and diesel engines |
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| a structure used in power plants to cool the water that flows through the plant’s condenser; extracts waste heat and discharges it to the atmosphere |
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| one who believes that human ingenuity will alleviated the problem of finite resources through new discoveries and technologies |
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| a rotating shaft in an engine that converts the back-and-forth motion pistons into rotary motion |
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| oil that comes form the ground, before refining or other processing |
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| a vehicle propulsion system that uses both a gasoline engine and an electric motor; the batteries powering the electric motor are charged directly by the gasoline engine or by the vehicles motions |
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| a continuos-combustions rotary engine operating at high temperature; used in advanced power plants and jet aircraft engines |
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| the point at which production of a resource peaks, after which there may be discrepancy between falling productions and rising demand |
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| intermittent-combustion engine |
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| refers to a heat engine in which combustion takes place within a closed chamber, such as the cylinders of a gasoline engine |
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| a waxy substance formed from organic material that is an intermediate stage in the formation of petroleum |
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| methane hydrate/methane clathrate |
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| a compound formed underwater at great depth, containing methane(natural gas) trapped in an ice-like structure |
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| a gaseous fossil fuel, consisting mostly of methane |
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| rock containing kerogen that can be extracted and processed into oil |
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| a hybrid vehicle in which gasoline engine provided most of the motive power, assisted occasionally by the electric motor |
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| a crumbly, brown material formed form decaying vegetation; a first step in the formations of coal, peat itself is burned as a fuel in some parts of the world |
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| strictly speaking; a liquid or gaseous fossil fuel, but often used as a synonym for oil |
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| tiny marine organisms at the bast of the marine food chain; plankton are important precursors of petroleum |
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| the process of chemically altering crude oil to form a variety of products, including heavy oils, aviation's fuels, and gasoline |
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| braking in a hybrid vehicle by using an electric generator to slow the wheels; the generator chargers the battery, thus recovering some of the energy of the vehicles motions |
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| the amount of a fuel that is known or reasonably certain to exist |
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| a time obtained by dividing the reserves of fuel by the current rate of productions; provides a rough estimate of how ling the fuel will lat, assuming the production rate stays approx. constant |
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| the total amount of a fuel in the ground, whether or not it’s been discovered or even estimated to exist |
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| a hybrid vehicle in which the gasoline engine is used solely to generate electricity that runs the electric motor; not in widespread use |
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| an intermittent-combustion engine in which a a spark initiated combustion, as in gasoline engines |
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| sand containing a heavy tar form which oil can be extracted |
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| a power plant that extracts energy from a hot source, usually a fossil-fuel coiler or nuclear fission reactor |
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| a fanlike arrangement of blades driven by a fluid flow; includes steam turbines in power plants and wind turbines |
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| oxic by-products of combustion, removable in principles by engineering the fuel, the combustion process, or the treatment of combustion products |
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| an essential product of fossil fuels combustion |
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| the most serious traditional impact of fossil fuels combustion |
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Definition
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| particulate matter, sulfur compounds, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxides, mercury, and other heave metals, and even radiation |
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| Other impacts of fossil fuels |
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Definition
| environmental degradation during extraction, refining and transportation of fuels. discharger of waste heat from power plants constitutes thermal pollution |
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| seepage of acidic water from coal mines into surface streams |
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| precipitation of higher than normal acidity, resulting from the reaction of sulfur dioxide pollution with water |
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| a chamber filled with fabric nags used for filtering articulates from an exhaust stream |
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| a device that uses catalyst to accelerate chemical reactions that render pollutants less harmful; for example catalytic converts in cars convert nitrogen oxides into nitrogen and oxygen; carbon monoxide into carbon dioxide; and unburned hydrocarbons into carbon dioxide and water |
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| a law, first enacted in 1963 and subsequently mended substantially, that has been instrumental in improving air quality in the us |
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| one of the 6 substances- carbon monoxide, lead, nitrogen dioxide, ozone, sulfur oxides, and two classes of particulates- for which the Clean air act sets maximum concentrations in ambient air |
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| a device that swirls exhaust gases in a high speed vortex to extract particulate pollutants |
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| structure designed to transfer waste heat from a power plant’s cooling water to the atmosphere |
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| electrostatic precipitator |
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| device that uses a strong electric field to extract particulates from an exhaust stream |
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| chemical process for removing sulfur compounds from flue gas before it is emitted to the atmosphere |
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| the ash produced in coal-burning power plants |
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| an atmospheric condition in which temp increases with altitude, resulting in a lose of energy quality |
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| the rate at which temp changes with altitude, normally a decrease of about 6.5C per kilometer |
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| National Ambient Air-quality standards |
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| the maximum allowed concentrations of the criteria pollutants under the Clean Air Act |
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| the oxygen compound O3; a greenhouse gas;in the stratosphere, ozone is an absorber of solar ultraviolet radiation, but is highly reactive, toxic pollutants near ground level |
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| fine articles of solid material suspended in the air |
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| a mix of harmful chemicals formed by the action of sunlight on air pollutants |
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| reaction driven by the energy of sunlight; important in forming smog from other air pollutants |
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| the scale used to designate acidity, with 7 being neutral and lower values being acidic |
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| air-quality standards aimed at protecting human health |
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| removal of chemical pollutants, especially sulfur compounds, from flue gas by reacting it with another substance |
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| air-quality standards aimed to protecting the general welfare, including property and environmental quality |
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| extracting coal by stripping off overlying surface layers |
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| sulfur-based particulates, particularly from coal burning; these are highly reflective and thus have a cooling effect on climate |
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| structure designed to transfer waste heat from a power plant’s cooling water to the atmosphere; wet towers do so by evaporation from the water exposed directly to the air |
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| can't be proven correct - can only be proven wrong - if it can't be disproven it's accepted as a theory |
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| Hypothesis --> Test/Experiment --> Generalization (or if it fails go back to hypothesis) |
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| kinetic, potential, solar, chemical (photosynthesis), hydro, electrical, thermal |
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| it goes from positive to negative to positive |
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| the larger the molecule the heavier it is considered |
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| depends on how much sulfur & carbon there is |
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