Term
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Definition
| the downslope movement of rock, regolith, and soil under the direct influence of gravity |
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Term
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Definition
| has a component parallel and a component perpendicular to the surface |
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Term
| angle of repose and how it changes for different materials |
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Definition
has a component parallel and a component perpendicular to the surface
- Dry materials usually 30-37 degrees, increasing with increasing grain size
-Slightly wet materials have a very high angle
-Saturated in water has a very low angle of repose |
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Term
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Definition
often aided by frost wedging in joints, fastest movement and rock can become air born, results in talus
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
occur when blocks of bedrock break loose and slide down a slope. Usually occur where rock strata are inclined or where joints and fractures exist parallel to the slope, and often aided by rain or melting snow that decreases friction, leads to scarp surfaces above and hummocky rocks below
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
a relatively rapid type of mass wasting including mud, earth, and debris, more fluid to preponderance of water, often channelized masses speeding at around 50 mph, frequent in southern California
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
like a rock slide except debris is largely unconsolidated
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
ike slides, but involve coherent masses, most common along beach cliffs and stream valleys
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
slowest and most widespread form of slope failure, almost imperceptible downhill movement caused by swelling and shrinking of soil in response to freezing and expanding of water in pores (soliflunction) and absorption of water and expansion of clay materials
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| at top of a landslide, hollowed out from rapid escape of rocks |
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Term
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Definition
| below landslide, lots of little hills up and down from debris |
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Term
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Definition
| ground surface sags gently or drops catastrophically as voids in rocks close, creates sinkholes |
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Term
| 7 main indications for landslides |
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Definition
| steep slopes, soft rocks, fractures, water, dip-slope conditions, loss of vegetation, prior history (scarps and hummocky ground |
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Term
| methods of landslide mitigation |
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Definition
| anchors, soil removal, steel “piles” used to tie the landslide mass with the rocks below, surface drainage ditches designed to collect and remove rain water |
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Term
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Definition
| the area in which all the water drains into a specific river, ocean, etc |
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Term
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Definition
| most common, horizontal or uniformly dipping beds |
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Term
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Definition
| water is draining radially around mountains, from the top down |
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Term
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Definition
| occurs do to jointed, fractured rocks, rivers move at sharp angles |
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Term
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Definition
| a system of streams in which nearly parallel tributaries occupy valleys cut in folded strata |
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Term
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Definition
| due to permeability of the rocks |
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Term
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Definition
| sediment is in solution, usually acquired by groundwater and dispersed throughout the flow, velocity has no effect on a streams ability to carry a dissolved load, and the quantity of the load is highly variable |
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Term
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Definition
| small particles in suspension, type and amount of material carried controlled by velocity of the water and the settling velocity of each sediment grain (larger particles settle faster) |
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Term
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Definition
| solid materials moving along the bottom of the stream, has an important effect on erosion of stream beds |
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Term
| deposition vs transportation vs erosion (what controls it |
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Definition
| Level of water depth and velocity and particle size controls deposition vs transportation vs erosion, during flood stage erosion, transportation at normal levels and deposition at low river levels |
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Term
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Definition
| eddies, particles of water move in all directions |
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Term
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Definition
| all particles move in the same direction straight down river |
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Term
| water velocity at different points in a stream |
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Definition
maximum at deepest part of river, faster around cut banks (outside of turns) then at point bars (inside of turns)
---More erosion at cut bank and deposition at point bar |
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Term
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Definition
| low gradient and unconsolidated sediment – erode |
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Term
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Definition
| steep slopes, lots of bed load (coarse material), erodible banks, variable discharge |
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Term
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Definition
| the flat, low-lying portion of a stream valley subject to periodic inundation |
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Term
| longitudinal stream profile |
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Definition
a cross section of a stream channel along its descending course from the head to the mouth
--High on the profile – more youthful streams, v-shaped walls, high velocity
--Low on profile - mature streams, large flood plains (wide river valleys), U shaped walls if at all, often meandering or braided, deposition matches erosion |
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Term
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Definition
| the level below which a stream cannot erode |
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Term
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Definition
| an accumulation of sediment formed where a stream enters a lake or an ocean |
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Term
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Definition
| a fan shaped deposit of sediment formed when a stream’s slope is abruptly reduced |
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Term
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Definition
| formed when a meandering stream cuts of a loop over time, leaving a shorter path and a loopy lake not connected to anything |
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Term
| causes and types of floods |
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Definition
--Local thunderstorm – flash flood lasting a few hours
--Rainfall over weeks – regional floods lasting weeks, building and dissipating slowly, often also do to snow melt
--Dam breaks – short lived natural dams (landslide, log and ice jam, lahar) cause flooding up stream, and then flash floods downstream when they break, human built levees or dams fail in floods |
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Term
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Definition
| flood occurs some time lag after rainfall occurs because it takes time for runoff to reach river |
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Term
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Definition
--Pros – clean energy, water, farming, recreation
--Cons – sediment trap, impact on beaches and wildlife (salmon)
--Can break unexpectedly causing huge disasters |
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Term
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Definition
--Recent – debris, sand bars, gravel/boulders
--Historical – gravel and sand intervals (date with carbon), flood hazard maps |
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Term
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Definition
| artificial mounds built on the banks of a river to increase the volume of water the channel can hold |
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Term
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Definition
| altering a stream channel in order to speed the flow of water to prevent it from reaching flood height |
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Term
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Definition
| An equation stating that groundwater discharge depends on the hydraulic gradient, hydraulic conductivity, and cross sectional area of an aquifer |
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Term
| what is groundwater flow dependent on |
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Definition
| permeability and slope of water table surface |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| how well the space is connected allowing groundwater to flow |
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Term
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Definition
| upper limit of where groundwater exists |
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Term
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Definition
| a localized zone of saturation above the main water table, created by an impermeable layer (aquiclude) |
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Term
|
Definition
| between two aquitards (impermeable layers) |
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Term
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Definition
| rock or sediment through which groundwater moves easily |
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Term
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Definition
| an impermeable bed that hinders or prevents groundwater movement |
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Term
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Definition
| unsaturated zone, above the water table |
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Term
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Definition
| streams that gain water from the inflow of groundwater through the stream bed, or that lose water from the to the groundwater system by outflow through the stream bed |
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Term
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Definition
| a cone shaped depression in the water table immediately surrounding a well |
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Term
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Definition
| groundwater under pressure rises above the level of the aquifer. Usually occurs where a confined water table is at an incline, so there is pressure at the bottom which pushes the water up |
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Term
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Definition
| where water table intersects land surface, often on faults or at a raised groundwater table |
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Term
| how do groundwater properties change with depth |
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Definition
| gets harder, hotter, older, and less abundant with depth |
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Term
| how is water hardness measured |
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Definition
| by quantities of Ca and Mg in ppm |
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Term
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Definition
| created at or just below the water table where acidic groundwater follows lines of weakness in the rocks such as joints and absorbs water |
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Term
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Definition
| areas that typically have irregular terrain punctuated with many sinkholes, often lack streams bc water is funneled straight underground |
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Term
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Definition
| caverns collapse under their own weight or limestone slowly dissolves the rock from the surface |
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Term
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Definition
| due to volcanic rocks, or formed deep where the earth is naturally very warm so water is heated |
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Term
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Definition
| hot rocks underground create steam from water which raises pressure |
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Term
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Definition
| platforms formed by hot springs and geysers |
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Term
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Definition
| hen excessive wells make a noticeable effect on the water table, creating a cone of depression |
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Term
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Definition
| cause the drying of lakes and streams and a drop in the level of the water table |
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Term
| contaminants in groundwater pollution |
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Definition
| feedlots, food processing spills, septic tanks, sewage spills, heavy metals, acid mine waste toxic compounds |
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Term
|
Definition
| excess nutrients leads to excessive plant growth which decreases oxygen content of the water |
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Term
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Definition
| requires not only cool summers but also precipitation |
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Term
|
Definition
| melting, iceberg calving, sublimation, wind erosion |
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Term
|
Definition
rotation, melting and refreezing, sliding
--Upper layer is brittle so it forms cracks and crevices
--Lower layer is ductile so it folds and flows continuously |
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Term
|
Definition
| relatively small glaciers existing in mountain areas, usually flowing in valleys previously occupied by streams |
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Term
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Definition
| much larger then valley glaciers, cover a whole continent, only 2 exist today, Antarctica and Greenland |
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Term
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Definition
| a ridge of till formed when lateral moraines from two coalescing alpine glaciers join |
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Term
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Definition
| a ridge of till along the sides of a valley glacier composed primarily of debris that fell to the glacier from the valley walls |
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Term
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Definition
| a ridge of till marking a former position of the front of a glacier |
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Term
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Definition
| a pyramid like peak formed by glacial action in three of more cirques surrounding a mountain summit |
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Term
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Definition
| a narrow knifelike ridge separating two adjacent glaciated valleys |
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Term
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Definition
| an ampitheatre shaped basin at the head of a glaciated valley produced by frost wedging and plucking |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| scratches or grooves in a bedrock surface caused by the grinding action of a glacier and its load of sediment |
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Term
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Definition
| unsorted sediment deposited directly by a glacier |
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Term
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Definition
| ice transported boulders that were not derived from the bedrock near their present site |
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Term
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Definition
| a steep sided hill composed of sand and gravel, originating when sediment collected in openings in stagnant glacial ice |
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Term
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Definition
| depressions created when blocks of ice become lodged in glacial deposits and subsequently melt, called a kettle lake when this is below the water table |
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Term
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Definition
| coupled markings in rocks that show seasons during glaciations |
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Term
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Definition
| rock or soil frozen for at least 2 years, destabilizes manmade/natural structures |
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Term
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Definition
| as glaciers are shrinking, the earth’s deserts are growing |
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Term
| causes of desertification |
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Definition
| global warming, overgrazing, groundwater depletion, irrigation induced soil salinization, deforestation, urbanization, mining without reclamation, wind as an agent of erosion and deposition |
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Term
|
Definition
| perpetual snow cover but low precipitation (Antarctica and Greenland) |
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Term
|
Definition
| latitudes around 25 degrees, pressure pushes moisture towards the equator, Sahara, Arabian, and Sonora deserts |
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Term
|
Definition
| Gobi of China and Mongolia |
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Term
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Definition
| downwind of mountain ranges, eastern Washington, Oregon, California (Mojave) |
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Term
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Definition
| similar to rain shadow, except winds off the continent are stripped of moisture by mountains, Ex. Atacama desert of Chile |
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Term
|
Definition
| the lifting and removal of loose material by wind |
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Term
|
Definition
| a layer of coarse pebbles and gravel created when wind removes the finer material |
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Term
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Definition
| a cobble or pebble with flat abraded surfaces polished and shaped by the sandblasting effect of wind, |
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Term
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Definition
| coating of rocks caused by water evaporating off the surface of the rock and depositing minerals that were in solution |
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Term
| causes of the southern dustbowl |
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Definition
| o Deep plowing of the topsoil killed natural grasses that helped hold topsoil in place and trapped moisture even during droughts and high winds |
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Term
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Definition
| an isolated mountain remnant characteristic of the late stage of erosion in a mountainous or arid region |
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Term
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Definition
| broad, slightly sloping bedrock surface at base of steeper slope, often covered with interlocked, loosely cemented gravel |
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Term
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Definition
| a fan shaped deposit of sediment formed when a stream’s slope is abruptly reduced |
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Term
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Definition
| an apron of sediment along a mountain front created by the coalescence of alluvial fans |
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Term
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Definition
| the flat central area of an undrained desert basin |
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Term
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Definition
a solitary sand dune shaped like a crescent with its tips pointing downwind
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
a series of long ridges oriented at right angles to the prevailing wind; these dunes form where vegetation is sparse and sand is very plentiful
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
long ridges of sand oriented parallel to the prevailing wind; these dunes form where sand supplies are limited
[image] |
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Term
|
Definition
a sand dune similar in shape to a barchans dune except that its tips point into the wind. These dunes often form along coasts that have strong onshore winds, abundant sand, and vegetation that partly covers the sand
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
an isolated hill of sand that exhibits a complex form and develops where wind directions are variable
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
form bc of wind carrying sand particles, as wind directions change the direction of particle motion changes, creating layers of different sloping dunes --wind is pointing in direction of slope of cross bedding
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| traveling energy, formed by some transfer of energy that may happen far out at sea, often by wind |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| where there is negligible water movement, usually below a depth of ½ wavelength |
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Term
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Definition
| When waves “feel bottom” (depth is equal to wave base) they begin to move slower allowing faster waves out at sea to catch up, thus decreasing speed and wavelength and increasing height. When wave can no longer support itself it breaks |
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Term
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Definition
| the bending of waves, leads to stronger wave impact against the sides and ends of headlands, and lower impact in bays |
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Term
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Definition
| even with wave refraction, waves typically hit beaches at some angle, which can move sand and sediment downshore |
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Term
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Definition
| a short wall built at a right angle to the seashore to trap moving sand |
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Term
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Definition
| a structure protecting a nearshore area from breaking waves, built further out in the water not right on shore |
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Term
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Definition
| a pair of structures extending into the ocean at the entrance to a harbor or a ricer that are built for the purpose of protecting against storm waves and sediment deposition |
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Term
|
Definition
| originate by the cutting action of the of surf against the base of coastal land |
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Term
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Definition
| wave cut bench is uplifted above sea level by tectonic forces |
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Term
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Definition
| formed when softer or more highly fractured rocks erodes in a headland at a faster rate creating an arch |
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Term
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Definition
| forms when the arch collapses leaving an isolated remnant |
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Term
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Definition
| water level rises so shoreline moves up |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| an elongated ridge of sand that projects from the land into the mouth of an adjacent bay |
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Term
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Definition
| low ridges of land parallel to the coast at distances from 3-30 km offshore |
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Term
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Definition
| a ridge of sand that connects an island to the mainland or to another island, forms in the same manner as a spit |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
| composition of the atmosphere |
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Definition
| 78% N2, 20% CO2, trace amounts of CO2, H2O is variable |
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Term
| greenhouse gases responsible for temperature change |
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
| uneven heating of the earths surface |
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Definition
at poles: rays strike surface at low angle and heat us diffuse
at equator: rays are perpendicular, maximum heating occurs |
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Term
| where does maximum precipitation and evaporation happen |
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Definition
| precipitation is greatest at equator, evaporation is greatest 10-40 degrees above and below equator |
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Term
| properties of ocean water |
|
Definition
| temperature, salinity/composition, density, stratification |
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Term
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Definition
| caused by the wind and the continents |
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Term
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Definition
| driven by density because cold and +/- saline water sinks at high latitudes, important for earths climate |
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Term
|
Definition
| approx one ice age event every 100,000 years |
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Term
|
Definition
| INcoming SOLar radiation, varies with season, earths axis inclined with respect to elliptic orbit |
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Term
|
Definition
| occur every 20,000-40,000 years, with accelerated diminished solar radiation every 100,000 years |
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Term
| How do temperature and greenhouse gas concentration interact |
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Definition
| as T increases, GHG concentration also increases |
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Term
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Definition
| numbers and types of organisms living near sea surface, and thus later in sediment, change with the climate |
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Term
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Definition
during periods when glaciers are extensive, concentration of O18 increases in water, and during warmer periods there are less glaciers so O18 concentration drops compared to O16
--We can look at this ratio over time in the record of shells of microorganisms |
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Term
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Definition
| air bubbles record variations in atmospheric composition, changes in CO2 and CH4 are linked to fluctuation temperatures, also include atmospheric fallout such as wind-blown dust, volcanic ash, pollen, and pollution |
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Term
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Definition
| a new ring is formed each year, characteristics of each ring such as size and density reflect environmental conditions that prevailed during the year when the ring formed |
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Term
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Definition
| pollution, 2 types, combustion (pollutant is a direct product of reaction) and photochemical (sunlight is needed) |
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Term
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Definition
| radiation is reflected by the earth’s surface, and sometimes it is trapped by greenhouse gasses and re-emitted in all directions instead of exiting the atmosphere as it normally would |
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Term
| how are greenhouse gases produced |
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Definition
| by industry, automobiles, etc |
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Term
| effects of global warming |
|
Definition
| sea level rise and loss of shorelines, increased severe weather, increased disease, animal extinction and people not being able to grow the crops they are used to |
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Term
|
Definition
| animal respiration, industry, volcanic eruptions |
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Term
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Definition
| plant respiration, oceans, carbon stored in rocks over millions of years |
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Term
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Definition
| wind, solar, hydroelectric, biomass, fusion |
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Term
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Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
| derived from past life forms, organic material |
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Term
| when did shift from wood to coal to oil happen |
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Definition
| o Wood used originally, shift to coal after widespread deforestation during industrial revolution, ~1940 widespread shift to oil and gas began |
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Term
| worlds largest coal reserves |
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Definition
| in the US, next largest in China and Russia, enough coal to last until 2300 |
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Term
| worlds largest oil reserves |
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Definition
| mostly found in the middle east, the US imports around 45% of the oil it uses and this number will increase |
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Term
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Definition
| many giant plants died in swamps, over time plants were buried over water and dirt, and eventually heat and pressure turn the plants into coal |
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Term
| formation of oil and natural gas |
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Definition
| in deep seas where millions of microorganisms die and settle into deeper cold water where they cannot be oxidized. As they become heated and buoyant and rise until they reach a trap rock where “black gold” forms. Natural gas always rises above oil bc its less dense |
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Term
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Definition
| ice like solids that consist of gas molecules which are enclosed in the structure of water molecules |
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Term
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Definition
--Surface coal (less then 200 ft deep) mined by removal of topsoil and rock
--Underground coal – elevators to deep mine shafts where machines dig coal |
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Term
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Definition
| drill wells pump oil to the surface, and then secondary recovery includes thermal, chemical, and fluid mixing, injection wells, and extraction wells |
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Term
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Definition
| found using seismic surveys, and obtained by drilling, then gas flows up through well and into pipelines easily |
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Term
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Definition
| where the fossil fuel is originally formed |
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Term
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Definition
| rock that the fuel moves throught before reaching trap rock |
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Term
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Definition
| oil traps often occur in anticlines or along a fault, the rock must be an aquiclude, impermeable to the flow of liquid and gas, like shale for example |
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Term
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Definition
| deep mines, surface excavation (countour, area, mountain top, dredging, open pit) |
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Term
|
Definition
| by gravity, leaching with cyanide, mercury, sulfuric acid, electromagnetic, and smelting |
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Term
|
Definition
| 1 ton of copper leads to 110 tons of waste rock and 200 tons of earth moved, similar and larger numbers for other precious metals |
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Term
|
Definition
| it takes 5% as much energy to produce aluminum from scrap metal as it does to process it from ore |
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Term
|
Definition
| Evaporation and transpiration -> condensation -> wind -> precipitation -> runoff -> Oceans and Lakes, also groundwater |
|
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Term
| what drives the hydrologic cycle |
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Definition
| Driven by the sun promoting evaporation and transpiration, which leads to humidity in the air and eventually rain |
|
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Term
| humidity (saturation and relative) |
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Definition
--Saturation humidity – maximum amount of water an air mass can hold (increases with increasing temperature)
--Relative humidity – ratio of absolute humidity to saturation humidity |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| when relative humidity reaches 100% excess water vapor condenses to liquid water, this is called the dew point |
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Term
|
Definition
| flows from a higher to a lower pressure, which is upward in the atmosphere if it can overcome gravity. As hot air rises it expands due to lower pressure |
|
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Term
|
Definition
| top of clouds net positive charge seeks to balance with bottom of clouds excess negative charge. Charge imbalance is partially induced by the downdrafts and updrafts opposite eachother |
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Term
|
Definition
air temperature normally decreases upward from surface
--Rising warm, moist air may begin condensation, releasing latent heat and providing energy for severe weather
--Early stage requires a continuous supply of warm moist air
--Mature stage – precipitation begins when mass of ice crystals and water droplets too heavy for drafts to support. Falling rain causes down drafts, and the 2 opposing drafts together create winds, heavy rain, thunder, lightning, and hail |
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Term
| why are thunderstorms common in southern and central US |
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Definition
| warm moist air comes from gulf of mexico and is necessary for thunderstorms |
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Term
|
Definition
| comes from storms with buoyant hot air rising from the ground, upper level cold air creating large temperature contrasts, strong updrafts keeping hailstones aloft while layers are added |
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Term
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Definition
| violent downdrafts of cold air during the mature stages of a thunderstorm, especially dangerous to airplanes |
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Term
|
Definition
air from gulf of Mexico (warm, humid), Canadian/Rocky Mountain (cold and dry), Jet stream winds (fast, high altitude) give thunderstorms shear
--Creates a corkscrew effect with warm air rising on one side and cool air falling on the other
--Rotation eventually develops with downward moving air in the center surrounded by upward spiraling funnel |
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Term
|
Definition
| cities are up to 10 degrees C warmer then surrounding areas, warm air rising can create thunder clouds, and make cities more prone to tornadoes |
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Term
| causes of global and regional climate change |
|
Definition
| --Change insolation, overall heat budget, global distribution of heat (oceanic circulation, continental distribution, location of mountain ranges) |
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Term
|
Definition
fraction of insolation reflected – Ice has high albedo, water has low albedo, land is intermediate depending on surface, high albedo = cool, so as icebergs melt in speeds up the heating of the planet
--Location of continents vs water effects climate change (in relation to equator) |
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Term
|
Definition
large millennial oscillations during the glacial period but not during interglaciation (at this scale)
--Greenland ice core and North-Atlantic marine sediment records correlate to orbital-scale changes slow cooling and then rapid warming |
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Term
|
Definition
slow cooling followed by rapid warming
--25 of these during the last glaciations period |
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Term
|
Definition
major episodes of ice rafting every 5,000 to 15,000 years, each rafting event followed by rapid warming
--Mess with the thermohaline conveyor, which is slowed down/shut off due to freshwater input=might trigger subsequent warming
--Come after D-O event |
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Term
| sea level rise and associated problems |
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Definition
| happens because the glaciers melt bc of global warming, and it is a problem because then the shorelines retreat |
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Term
|
Definition
| local, regional, global effectsshould the EPA be enforced to limit CO2 emissions? |
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Term
|
Definition
--Cold air is heavy and under warm air cannot rise/is trapped; such cold air can be derived from the ocean of the mountains
--Warm layer acting like a cap leads to pollution |
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Term
|
Definition
bad - photochemical smog; acts as a UV filter
good - high in the atmosphere |
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Term
|
Definition
| Water vapor (greatest effect depending on humidity, only greenhouse gas not increasing), Carbon dioxide (largest contributor),Not very absorbent but is most important b/c of its volume and release into atmosphere through human activities,Methane, Nitrous oxide, Sulfur hexafluoride |
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Term
| cause of seasonal cyclical change in CO2 levels |
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Definition
Seasonal variation of the growth of vegetation (boreal forests) from the Northern Hemisphere
--Atmospheric concentrations decrease starting in spring because respiration increases for trees
--Growth ceases starting in the fall through the spring=concentrations increase again |
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Definition
--Chlorofluorocarbons
--Once in the atmosphere, stay for a while
--Have enough time to rise to stratosphere and mesosphere and effect ozone layer |
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Term
| flood recurrence interval |
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Definition
--Probability of a 100-year flood is 1%; 50-year flood is 2%
--Can construct flood-frequency curve by plotting flood discharge volumes vs. recurrence interval |
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Definition
| occurs when overdraw freshwater on top of saltwater that is beneath=ruins well permanently |
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Definition
upper flow is brittle, forms cracks and crevaces
lower flow is ductile, has folds and continuous flow |
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Definition
| markings from movement of glaciers |
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Definition
| markings from movement of glaciers |
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Definition
| upper (swash) and lower (backwash) part of each wavefront |
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Definition
| long, narrow strip of relatively level or gently inclined land that is bounded by distinctly steeper slopes above and below it |
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Definition
| trying to reach equilibrium between temperatures |
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Term
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Definition
deflection of water or air because of earth’s rotation
--Arrows in above diagram indicate direction of the storms
--Earth’s rotation is fastest at the equator—rotation of the Earth causes angled movement of particles |
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Definition
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Definition
disruption/variation of the ocean-atmosphere system in the equatorial Pacific3 to 7 year cycle with weird Southern Surface Temperatures
--Southern oscillation=high and low pressures switch over Australia
--Easterly winds weaken, warm water sloshes east, Southern Surface Temps are higher off of Peru, no upwelling, rain/flooding in South America, drought in Australia, India, Indonesia |
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Term
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Definition
abnormally cold Southern Surface Temperatures
--Warm water further west than usual
--(compared to El Nino) usually stormier, cool SST in central Pacific, rain like normal conditions but sometimes stronger |
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Term
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Definition
| winds push tropical waters west=warm Western Pacific and 0.5m higher sea level in Indonesia than Ecuador, cold water upwells in Eastern Pacific |
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