Term
| The "gut" refers to what? |
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Definition
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Term
| Pre-gut fermentation occurs in what animals? |
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Definition
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Term
| Post-gut fermentation occurs in what animals? |
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Definition
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Term
| Ingested proteins break down into amino acids, which are then broken down into... |
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Definition
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Term
| Ammonia produced in the body travels to... |
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Definition
| the liver via the portal vein |
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Term
| The hepatocytes convert ammonia into ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| In carnivores, urea serves what purpose? |
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Definition
| it's useless, a waste product; goes to blood > kidneys > excreted in urine |
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Term
| BUN should be no more than ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| Urea is a waste product from... |
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Definition
the digestion of protein
protein > AA > ammonia > urea |
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Term
| If a dog's BUN is 400 mg/dL, but you know the kidneys/UT are fine, what is making the BUN so high? |
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Definition
| cachexia / muscle wasting - cancer |
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Term
| Dr. Stein defines isosthenuria as... |
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Definition
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Term
| Most carnivores can function at ___ kidney. |
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Definition
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Term
| How to determine if high BUN is from cachexia or kidney Dz? |
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Definition
| kidney Dz usually gradual, check creatinine |
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Term
| Fat has ___x the energy of carbs. |
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Definition
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Term
| Why are ketones found in urine of diabetic patients? |
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Definition
body is drowning in sugar but can't use it, so body metabolizes fats
fat > acetone > ketone |
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Term
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Definition
| enzyme in hepatocytes, so urea > urate |
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Term
| Function of urea in herbivores? |
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Definition
| essential for life! bugs use N in urea to make their own protein |
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Term
| Herbivores store urea where? |
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Definition
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Term
| The digestive system is composed of... |
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Definition
| the alimentary canal and accessory organs |
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Term
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Definition
| liver, teeth, salivary glands, etc |
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Term
| Technically, the GIT is ___ the body. |
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Definition
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Term
| What kind of stomachs do herbivores have? Carnivores? Omnivores? |
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Definition
H: complex(ruminants) or simple(horses)
C/O: simple |
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Term
| Starting at the lumen, what are the tissue layers of the intestines? |
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Definition
Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscularis
Serosa |
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Term
| What species have very mobile upper lips? Which have slightly mobile? Which have immobile? |
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Definition
Very mobile: horses, sheep, goats
Slightly mobile: carnivores
Immobile: cattle |
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Term
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Definition
-reduce size of ingested food by cutting/grinding
-inflicting wounds for food gathering or protection |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Name the carnassial teeth: |
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Definition
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Term
| The entire mouth can be called the ___ ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| Instead of upper incisors and canines, cattle have... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| mechanical breakdown of food; chewing |
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Term
| The surface of the teeth which has cusps is known by what names? |
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Definition
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Term
| How do carnivores masticate/eat? |
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Definition
| slice and bolt; very little chewing |
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Term
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Definition
| throw food to pharynx and swallow |
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Term
| Temporalis origin/insertion |
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Definition
| temporal fossa to shaft of mandible |
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Term
| Masseter origin/insertion |
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Definition
| ventral surface of zygomatics to shaft and ramus of mandible |
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Term
| Function of the torus linguae? |
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Definition
| once food is past this structure, it must be swallowed |
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Term
| What gives the tongue its extreme mobility? |
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Definition
| multidirectional muscle fibers |
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Term
| Taste buds are more formally known as ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| Papillae are important for the sense of ___. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| lacy fringe on the rostral edges of neonatal puppies' tongues; prevents milk from spilling over |
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Term
| Taste in domestic animals is considered as ___. |
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Definition
| preference (unpleasant, indifferent, pleasant) |
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Term
| Where is the opening to the Eustachian tube located? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| area where the oropharynx and nasopharynx meet, just before esophagus and trachea |
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Term
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Definition
| area from the teeth to the bottom of the soft palate |
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Term
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Definition
| area from the soft palate to the end of the nasal conchae |
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Term
| Describe the location of the esophagus from cranial to caudal. |
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Definition
-dorsal to trachea at Cr cervical area
-then L lateral to trachea at mid-cervical area to thoracic inlet
-then dorsal to trachea at base of heart
-passes through diaphragm slightly L of midline |
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Term
| Explain the phrase, "a horse only vomits once." |
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Definition
-soft palate extends under epiglottis at all times
-vomit would go into nasopharynx
-from nasopharynx to trachea, and they drown |
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Term
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Definition
| in horses, the soft palate can become trapped over the epiglottis, causes breathing troubles |
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Term
| In herbivores, over __% of all ingested water is in the form of ___. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
-anti-bloat
-lubricates food
-heat dissipation
-amylase breaks down sugars
-sodium bicarb (NaHCO3) buffers stomach acid |
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Term
| Cows produce how much saliva each day? (it's a range) |
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Definition
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Term
| Most water is absorbed from the ___. |
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Definition
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Term
| What types of fluids do salivary glands produce? |
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Definition
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Term
| Salivary glands empty into the __. |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| labial, buccal, lingual, zygomatic |
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Term
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Definition
parotid, mandibular, sublingual
(and zygomatic in dog/cat only) |
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Term
| Difference between minor and major salivary glands? |
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Definition
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Term
| Which salivary gland is responsible for "gleeking"? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| rounded prominence just caudal to incisors on hard palate |
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Term
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Definition
| openings on either side of incisive papilla; connect oral cavity to nasal cavity, run just under hard palate; molecules in solution are transported in these canals to vomeronasal organ |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| What is the vomeronasal organ? |
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Definition
| olfactory organ in all mammals, important organ of smell; breathe in pheremones |
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Term
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Definition
| "swallowing;" very complex process of voluntary and involuntary stages within the mouth, pharynx, and esophagus |
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Term
| 7 stages of reflexive swallowing |
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Definition
1. respiration inhibited
2. glottis closes
3. larynx pulled upward/forward (hyoids)
4. base of tongue folds over epiglottis (forces bolus from mouth/pharynx)
5. soft palate elevates
6. peristaltic wave in pharynx pushes bolus into esophagus
7. peristaltic wave in esophagus pushes bolus to stomach |
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Term
| During deglutition, at what point does the action become involuntary? |
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Definition
in the mouth = voluntary
reaches larynx/pharynx = involuntary |
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Term
| At the thoracic inlet, where is the esophagus in relation to the jugulars / carotids? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| thick soupy mixture of food |
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Term
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Definition
| folds inside the stomach which increase the surface area for churning and secretion |
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Term
| The stomach resembles the letter "C," with the concave portion facing which direction? |
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Definition
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Term
| The greater omentum originates at ___, travels over viscera, doubles back, and inserts at ___. |
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Definition
| origin & insertion at greater curvature of the stomach |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| inflammation of the stomach's mucosa |
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Term
| How can a faulty pH in the stomach lead to liver abscesses? |
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Definition
| gastric ulcers can form, bugs leak out of stomach, ride portal vein to liver |
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Term
Normal pH of the stomach?
HCL ph? |
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Definition
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Term
| Name the parts of the simple stomach: |
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Definition
-cardia
-fundus
-body
-pylorus
-antrum |
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Term
| In carnivores, the stomach is completely lined with... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| dilatation of alimentary canal, aboral to esophagus; receives ingesta from esophagus, churns it, stores it |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Herbivores have ___ and ___ epithelium in the stomach. |
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Definition
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Term
| The stomach makes mucus how often? |
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Definition
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Term
| Describe the series of secretion events that occur after food enters the stomach. |
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Definition
-food stimulates G-cells to release hormone gastrin
-gastrin stimulates parietal cells to release HCl
-gastrin stimulates chief cells to release pepsinogen
-HCl transforms pepsinogen into pepsin
-pepsin breaks proteins into AAs
-some AAs exit into duodenum
-free AAs stimulate chief cells to release more pepsinogen |
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Term
| G-cells are located where? |
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Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| it's inert; HCl turns it into pepsin which is an enzyme that breaks down proteins |
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Term
| What do parietal cells do? |
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Definition
| release HCl when stimulated by hormone gastrin |
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Term
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Definition
| release pepsinogen when stimulated by hormone gastrin |
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Term
| What does hormone gastrin do? |
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Definition
| stimulate parietal cells to release HCl, stimulate chief cells to release pepsinogen |
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Term
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Definition
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Term
| Free AAs in the stomach do what? |
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Definition
| stimulate chief cells to release more pepsinogen |
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Term
| The alimentary canal consists of: |
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Definition
| mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, jejunum, cecum, colon, rectum, anus |
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Term
| Name the accessory organs: |
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Definition
| pancreas, liver, teeth, salivary glands |
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Term
| Do oxen have simple or complex stomachs? What about horses? What about pigs? |
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Definition
Ox: complex
Horse: simple
Pig: simple |
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Term
| What animal has no philtrum? How does this affect feeding behavior? |
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Definition
| ox - can't eat grass right next to an object, eg fence post |
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Term
| What animal has virtually no lip mobility? |
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Definition
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Term
| What are the muscles of mastication? |
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Definition
| masseter, temporalis, pterygoid |
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Term
| Which lingual papillae have special nerve endings for gustation? |
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Definition
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Term
| What animals have very cornified lingual papillae? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| continuation of oropharynx floor on either side of larynx |
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Term
| Where exactly can bones get lodged in a dog's mouth? |
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Definition
| piriform recess- continuation of oropharynx floor on either side of larynx |
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Term
| Where is the liver located? |
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Definition
| always directly behind diaphragm, and usually to the right |
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Term
| How many basic lobes and processes does the liver have? |
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Definition
4 lobes: left, right, quadrate, caudate
2 processes
sometimes L and F lobes divided into medial / lateral |
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Term
| Ligaments that attach the liver to the body include: |
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Definition
-coronary
-R and L triangular
-falciform
-round |
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Term
| What ligament is a vestage of the umbilical vein of the fetus? |
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Definition
| round ligament (connects liver to body) |
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Term
| The liver has 2 blood supplies. What are they? |
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Definition
| nutrient blood received from hepatic artery, venous blood from portal vein |
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Term
| The portal vein makes up what fraction of blood flow to the liver? |
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Definition
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Term
| Function of the Sphincter of Oddi? |
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Definition
| controls the opening of the common bile duct into the duodenum |
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Term
| The largest gland in the body is: |
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Definition
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Term
| Some processes of the liver: |
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Definition
-detox drugs
-manufacture plasma proteins
-form/secrete bile
-metabolize carbs and fats
-urea formation
-store vitamins
-inactivate/reduce/conjugate adrenal and gonadal hormones |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| What is the structural unit of the liver? Describe it. |
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Definition
| lobule: cords of hepatocytes radiating out from a central vein; sinusoids between these cords |
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Term
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Definition
| specialized macrophages that line the liver sinusoids; an integral part of the Mononuclear Phagocyte System |
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Term
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Definition
| Mononuclear Phagocyte System |
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Term
| Following partial hepatectomy, there is __% regrowth within ___ in the rat. How long does this take in dogs? Humans? |
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Definition
Rat: 80% regrowth in 5 days
Dog: 6-8 weeks
Human: 8 months |
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Term
| What lies between adjacent rows of hepatocytes? |
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Definition
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Term
| Bile travels through the canaliculi in the same or opposite direction of the blood flow within the sinusoids? |
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Definition
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Term
| List the channels through which bile flows within the liver: |
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Definition
| canaliculi > interlobular ducts > lobular ducts > hepatic ducts |
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Term
| In the horse, the hepatic ducts discharge into... |
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Definition
| the duodenum directly, because they have no gallbladder |
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Term
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Definition
| in the intestine, bile salts and lecithin break down fat into smaller globules |
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Term
| What are Hepatocellular cycles? What is the most familiar one? |
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Definition
-enzyme systems functioning within the cytoplasm of the hepatocyte
-urea cycle |
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Term
| The enzymes released from swollen and/or ruptured hepatocytes are classified as: |
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Definition
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Term
| What does ALT stand for? Why do we care about it? |
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Definition
Alanine Aminotransferase
-hepatocyte = ballooon filled with ALT
-injury/metab disturbance = ^ALT
-high activity in dog, cat, primate, but not in equine/bovine |
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Term
| What does AST stand for? Why do we care about it? |
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Definition
Aspartate Aminotransferase
-in skeletal muscle and liver
-good for species without high ALT activity |
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Term
| What does CK/CPK stand for? Why do we care about it? |
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Definition
Creatine Kinase
-indicates skeletal muscle injury
-use in conjunction with AST in horse/ruminant to determine if liver or muscle is damaged |
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Term
| How to determine liver damage in the ruminant or horse? |
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Definition
-AST and CK
-sorbitol dehydrogenase (SD, SDH)
-glutamate dehydrogenase (GD, GLDH) |
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Term
| Following acute insult to the liver in the horse or bovine, what enzyme rises rapidly and then returns to normal range within 48-72 hours? |
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Definition
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Term
| Are SD and GD tests done routinely in vet med? |
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Definition
| no, there's an unavailability of convenient methodoloy |
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Term
| What is cholestasis, and how can we test for it? |
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Definition
-flow of bile from the liver is slowed or blocked
-test ALP, GGT |
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Term
| What does ALP stand for? Why do we care about it? |
|
Definition
alkaline phosphatase
-test for cholestasis, specifically canilicular membrane damage |
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|
Term
| What does GGT stand for? Why do we care about it? |
|
Definition
gamma-glutamyltransferase
-test for cholestasis, specifically damage to epithelial cells of ducts |
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Term
| Production of albumin depends on what 2 things? |
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Definition
| adequate liver function and nutrition |
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Term
| Is albumin a reliable indicator for hepatic function? |
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Definition
| no, dogs, cats, horses, and ruminants have tremendous reserve capacity for albumin |
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Term
| Extrahepatic losses of albumin include: |
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Definition
-urine
-GIT
-malnutrition
-burns |
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Term
| In cases of cholestasis, what happens to cholesterol in the liver? |
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Definition
| builds up, affects RBC shape |
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Term
| Increase in ALP can indicate what? |
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Definition
-hepatobiliary problem
-animal is young and still growing/remodeling bones
-active bone Dz |
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Term
|
Definition
| ammonia escapes hepatic metabolism and causes CNS issues |
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