sex = biological characteristics of males and females

gender = social attitudes and behaviours of males and females 

Gender role = behaviour expected of a female or male in a particular culture

Sex role = behaviour defined by biological constraints

Cross Dressers 

&

Transvestites 

Transsexuals 

&

Transgendered Persons

Intersexed 

(Hermaphrodite) 

• A person who has intersexed sexual organs
• A person for who the biological process of sex differentiation has been nonstandard
• rare - between 1 in 7- and 1 in 5000 live births 
• causes: chromosomal abnormalities, errors of metabolism, exposure to exogenous steroids 

Kathoey = third gender, biological male with feminine social behaviours, attracted to men

Tom = biological female who wants to be accepted as and live like a man, attracted to women

Samoan Fa'afifine = biological males who dress and act feminine 

We learn behavious from out interaction with the environment 

2 kinds: reinforcement & modeling

1. physical and verbal manipulations
2. stereotypical gender-identified objects
3. different verbal descriptions of the same behaviour
4. stereotypical gender-identified activities 

• instrumental focus on work identity
• higher income and job advantages
• less domestic work and marital stress 

• expressive focus on feelings and others' needs
• identity tied to relationships rather than work
• closer attachment with children 

• personal self-worth tied to job and income
• job-related stress
• less time for family life
• limited emotional expression
• limitations on child custody 

• reduced income and career fulfillment 
• dependence on a spouse
• the beauty problem
• less personal self-worth 

achieving flexibility

the quality of having one both male and female culturally defined characteristics 

beyond gender

abandoning gender as destiny

rejecting gender as a justification for inequality 

• elderly are more socially cut off
• victims reluctant to disclose 

• fear of retaliation and blame
• perceived abuse as more tolerable than stress of alternative living arrangements 
• lack of knowledge on where to turn
• dementia or illness might make it difficult to express self
• concern for abuser 

4% reported current abuse

28% of women and 22% of men reported past abuse 

• lesbians are regarded as warm and supportive
• violence among gay men regarded as a fair fight

• traditional gender role adoption
• violence is a way to solve problems
• difficulty dealing with emotions
• trouble trusting others
• poor self-image
• do not take responsibility for actions 

they act on a feeling of a long-term sense to being entitled to what they want 

they use violence because they know that it works 

• Tertiary - treatment or some other intervention to keep abuse fro recurring 
• Secondary - programs involve working with groups considered to be at risk for abuse
• Primary - aims to keep abuse from occuring at all

Situational Theory

&

Abuse 

• here the abuser acts because he/she is under stress
• the stress model fails to account for the facts that not all abusers are under high levels of stress and that many people who experience high levels of strees are not abusive 

Social Exchange Theory

& 

Abuse 

• the abuser will use violence as long as it is rewarded - if the rewards outweigh the costs 
• when faced with consequences, the abuser may stop, as the violence is no longer rewarded 

Symbolic Interaction Theory

&

Abuse 

• this theory focuses on the interaction between the abuser and the abused
• it emphasizes both the actual behaviour and the meanings both people find in this behaviour
• does not take into account any influences outside the family 

Family Systems Theory

&

Abuse 

• states that we learn patterns of interaction within families
• includes roles, which are expected patterns of behaviour for family members
• these roles become so ingrained that they are difficult to change 

Feminist Theories

&

Abuse 

• consider violence the result of patriarchy
• allows men more power than women and asserts it is right for them to have that power
• this imbalance leaves women vulnerable to abuse
• the strict feminist view fails to account for abuse in gay and lesbian relationships or for women's violence against men 

• society itself has been blamed for abuse
• many identified abusers are from lower socioeconomic classes
• their violence may be a response to the stress of social factors
• this model does not account for abusers from higher socioeconomic positions 

• women achieved independence in the workforce
• prolonged separation 
• hasty wartime marriages

1985 Divorce Act 

(waiting period reduced to 1 year)

Quebec at 48.4% 

Liberal Values 

• you can apply for a divorce in Canada if:
• you were legally married in Canada or in any other country
• you intended to separate permanently from your spouse
• one or both spouses have lived in Canada for at least 1 year immediately prior to applying for divorce

• depth (the amount a family is below the poverty line)
• duration (how long the poverty lasts)
• breadth (what other areas affected) 

• two-parent families with one earner
• single adult households
• unattached women and single moms

• Chronically homeless have problems with drugs and alcohol
• Cynically homeless because of job loss, family violence, or release from prison
• temporarily homeless relatively short time result of marital separation or a disaster like a fire 

• shortage of affordable housing
• changes in employment patterns
• releasing psychiatric patients
• drug and alcohol abuse
• changes in eligibility for and levels of welfare 

Children

1 in 6 children are poor - about 20%

Income = $89,700

Taxes = $39, 378 - 43.9% of income

nearly one third

1. independence versus dependence
2. connectedness versus separateness
3. openness versus privateness 

•  Fundamental issues
• infidelity and abuse
•  Experiential Issues
• diasagreements, unsatisfactory sex life
• Fertility issues 
• infertility issues, presence of children