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| $5 billion a year business whose clients include major corporations, political candidates, and the mass media. |
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| television ratings system |
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| introduced probability sampling; Institute of American Public Opinion |
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| measures radio audiences in local markets |
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| studies human nature and behavior, specializes in management, economics, psychology, & sociology. |
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| everyone in the population being surveyed has an equal chance to be sampled. |
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| -# of people in a properly selected sample for results to provide 95% confidence that results have less than a 5% margin of error. |
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| -Percentage that a survey may be off mark |
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| Demographics of the sample coincide with those of the whole population. |
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How many people surveyed?
When was poll taken?
Who paid for poll?
What was the sampling error?
How was the poll conducted?
How were questions worded and in what order were they asked? |
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| Audit Bureau of Circulations |
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| newspaper and magazine circulation claims |
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| first polls on broadcast audience size. |
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| when broadcast ratings are conducted |
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| measurement of broadcast audience size |
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| small groups interviewed in loosely structured ways for opinion, reactions |
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| monitor pulse, skin responses to stimuli |
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| divide people by age, gender, etc. to match content with audience. |
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| demographic tool to identify marketing targets by common characteristics. |
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| characteristics by geographic area |
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| analysis by values, lifestyle, life stage |
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| -“Magic Bullet Theory” hypodermic needle; theory that the media have immediate, direct influence |
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| social commentator who wrote Public Opinion in 1922 |
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| argues that we see the world not as it really is but as “pictures in our heads” The “pictures” of things we have not personally experienced are shaped by the mass media. |
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| His mass communication model assumed powerful effects |
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| Hypodermic needle model or Magic bullet model. |
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| Another name for overrated powerful effects theory. |
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| Minimalist Effects Theories |
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| theory that media effects are mostly indirect. |
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| Found voters are more influenced by other people than by mass media. |
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| media affects individuals through opinion leaders |
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| influence friends, acquaintances |
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| media attention enhances attention given to people, subjects, issues |
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| Agenda-setting phenomenon |
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| media tell people what to think about, NOT what to think. |
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| Pornography versus Obscenity |
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The U.S. Supreme Court has ruled that pornography cannot be stopped.
Import and postal restrictions can be used against obscene materials which go beyond pornography.
Something is obscene if the answer is yes to all the following:
Would a typical person applying local standards see the material as appealing mainly for its sexually arousing effect?
Is the material devoid of serious literary, artistic, political or scientific value? |
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| Freedom of Information Act |
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| public can request federal documents |
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| open meeting laws require government meetings to be open to public |
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| open meeting laws require government meetings to be open to public |
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| there are boundaries on photographing/hounding people in public places |
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| intruding on solitude – people have a right to solitude and expectation of solitude |
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| Fair comment and criticism- |
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| stipulation: person must be in public or performance role. |
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People who are public figures (meaning they sought limelight) must prove not just that material is false, but that media are guilty of “reckless disregard of the truth”
public figures can win libel suits only in extreme circumstances.
People who have actively sought the limelight forfeit some of the protection available to other citizens.
Must prove media had reckless disregard of the truth |
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| there is a bedrock principle underlying the First Amendment, it is that the government may not prohibit the expression of an idea simply because society finds the idea itself offensive or disagreeable." - Justice William Brennan |
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Several punks had burned a cross, KKK style, on the lawn of a black family in St. Paul, Minnesota. They were caught and convicted under a municipal ordinance against "hate speech.”
Court found ordinance was aimed at the content of the expression and went beyond time, place or manner restrictions. |
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Authorities can justify silencing someone only if:
The statement advocates a lawless action.
The statement aims at producing lawless action.
Such lawless action must be imminent.
Such lawless action must be likely to occur.
Must meet all four tests it to be suppressed by the government |
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The court said someone might be justified taking action against someone for using "fighting words.”
Preventing a riot is justification for shutting someone up.
Time, place and manner limits by the government on expression.
Time, place and manner limits |
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| Allowable Abridgments to Free Speech |
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| public endangerment; fire in movie theatre |
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| government action that prevents material from being published |
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| principal in 1924 US supreme court decision that barred state censorship laws |
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| Wrote the first amendment |
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| government interference in free expression, religion, and individual and public protests against public policies |
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| First Amendment- Scope of the First Amendment - Prohibited only Congress from limiting freedom of expression, but what about States? |
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| Federal Coverage by Media |
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White House draws extensive coverage
White House reporters are briefed twice a day
Reporters see themselves as surrogates for the citizenry
Congress - primary reporting focuses on the Senate and House leadership with regional reporters covering for local interest
Agencies - extreme lack of newspaper/tv coverage of powerful government agencies with a little slack being picked up by trade journal and newsletter industry. |
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| allowed to collect unlimited money independently a way around campaign finance reform |
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| much information for media to sort through, therefore no time to compose difficult questions or pursue fresh angles |
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| to refuse to answer questions, sometimes refusing to even meet with reporters |
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| a deliberate leak of a potential policy, usually from a diversionary source, to test public response |
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| Government Manipulation of Media |
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| political leaders have over time developed mechanisms to influence coverage to their advantage |
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| favor shorter stories because if broadcasting’s severe time constraints |
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Reporters gravitate toward certain kinds of stories:
Presidential Coverage-personifying the candidate
Conflict-audiences like it, often illustrates the great issues by which society is defining and redefining its values
Scandals-build audience, this explains increased coverage
Horse Races-an election campaign treated by reporters like a game: who’s ahead, who’s falling back, etc. |
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| activation of one thought leads to another |
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| selecting aspects of a perceived reality for emphasis in a mass-media message, thereby shaping how the audience sees the reality |
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| the ability of television, through emotion-raising video, to elevate distant issues on the domestic public agenda |
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| process through which issues bubble up into public attention through mass-media selection of what to cover |
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| Media Effects on Governance |
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| media coverage shapes what we think about as well as how we think about it. Media is a powerful linkage between government and how people view it. |
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