1. Failure in a conservation task
2. Egocentrism
3. Confusion of appearance and reality
4. Precausal reasoning

• Me, me, me... ex: giving dad a carebear for his birthday, not something dad likes.
• Inability to engage in "theory of mind"- thinking about others' mental states
• Having a form of moral reasoning that does not take intentions into account.

The tendency to reason from one particular event to another rather than engaging in cause and effect reasoning.

• Magical thinking
• "I haven't had a nap yet, so it isn't afternoon."
• Graveyards are where dead people are buried, so they must cause death.

This is the theory that cognitive changes are brought about by changes in the three priveleged domains, which are specialized ways of reasoning that have evolutionary importance to human beings. The three are...

1. Physics
2. Psychology
3. Biology

They provide domain specific support for development. They a cognitive process started and provide some intial direction, but subsequent experience is needed to realized the potential.

The theory theory- this explains that children are like little scientists. They start off with crude understanding of domain specific features of the envrionment and build them as they experience more.

Through their participation in everyday activities, children develop scripts.

Scripts are event schemas that functions as guides to action (going to a restaurant, taking a bath, etc.) Aka how to act during these.

Socialization- learning the standards, values and knowledge of your society.

Personality formation- developing unique patterns of feeling, thinking and behaving.

The formation of self-concept- the view of self in relation to others 

Two dimensions:

1. I-self- the subjective side, person looking out at the world.
2. Me-self- the objective side, looking in from the outside

• Active side- "I do, therefore I am."
• Starts acting on environment and watching results (by 1st year)
• Eventuall includes self awareness, self continuity (same over time), self coherence (single entity) and self agency (self control).

• Object side of knowledge and evaluation
• Qualities that make the self unique.
• Physical and psychological characteristics (I'm tall or I'm brave)
• Sociological characteristics (I'm the new kid at school).

Freud- assumed children are caught between desire of replacing the same sex parent and the fear of getting punished by them.

They resolve this by identifying with the same sex parent.

Emphasizes two processes...

1. Modeling- children observe and imitate individuals of their own sex.
2. Differential reinforcement- boys and girls are rewarded for engaging in gender appropriate activities.

From Bern, includes features from cognitive developmental and social learning. Before identifying as girl as boy, their schema motivates gender typical interests and behaviors.

All in all, a mental model that says males and females are used to processing only gender-relevant information, which guides the way children select and remember information from the environment.

A subjective sense of belonging to an ethnic group and the feelings and attitudes that accompany that membership.

Has been raised concerns about minority children's negative views of their own ethnic identity (pick white doll instead of black one). This has been explained by the fact that it is less a reflection of self and more a desire for power and wealth.

1. Instrumental- aggression aimed at gaining something
2. Hostile- aggression aimed at hurting someone (physical or relational).

Biological- dominance and testosterone levels

Social and cultural- rewarding aggression or not, telling children to use aggression, seeing aggression often.

Emotional and cognitive- less advanced emotional knowledge, interpreting neutral situations aggressively.

• Sympathy- feelings of sorry or concern for another (leads to prosocial).
• Personal distress- a self-focues emotional reaction to another person's distress.

Prosocial is controlling personal distress but feeling sympathy.

• Nuclear family- family consisting of husband, wife and children.
• Extended family- immediate family plus kin who all share a household.

1. Survival goal- ensuring children survive by providing health and safety
2. Economic goal- ensure children acquire skills and resources to be economically productive
3. Cultural goal- ensure children acquire basic cultural values of group

Is a demanding but reciprocal (warm and responsive, view of child POV) relationship. Favors reasoning over physical punishment and encourages independence.

Children are usually self-reliant, self-controlled, display curiosity and are content.

Parents are demanding and controlling, favor punitive methods (physical) and stress obedience over independence.

Children are usually other-directed, lack social competence, lack curiosity and are withdrawn.

Underdemanding and little control, allow children to learn through own experiences and stress neither independence nor obedience.

Children are usually dependent on others, have poor impulse control and immature.

It is unclear if parenting shapes child or child shapes parenting.

In Asian cultures, parental warmth and discipline are positive correlated. In African American children, higher levels of physical discipline were not associated with aggression. European-American tend to value warmth and moderate control to promote independence. In Asian and Latin American, independence is not highly valued and cooperation is promoted. 

Positive- more self-sufficiency and verbal expresiveness

Negative- more aggressive behavior

This stresses the importance of warm, responsive caregivers.

Children who were adopted before 6 months showed substantial improvement from previous situation.

Children who were adopted after 6 months had persistent deficits. 

• Modeling- children imitate actions on TV
• Young children can easily confuse appearance with reality.
• Violenct programs tend to make children more aggressive.

• Children are treated differently than before around 6-8 in most cultures.
• Formal schooling begins
• Increased respsonsibilty, autonomy and accountability.

BMI (body mass index)- >95% is obese; 85-95% is overweight.

Can be caused by combination of genetic and social characteristics (or just that everybody is lazy now).

• Myelination in frontal occurs, pruning everywhere.
• Theta (sleep) activity drops, and alpha (alert) rises.
• The synchronization of electrical activity, increased incoordination of brain networks
• Frontal regions become coordinated with other parts.

In what stage of children of middle chilhood (6-12) in? (Piaget)

What is conservation?

The concrete operational stage- coordinating mental actions that are logical and allow reasoning about concrete objects and events.

Includes conservation- understanding that some properties of an object or substance remain the same even when its appearance has altered (different shaped glasses with liquid)

Understanding that logical rules apply

Ex: even when quantity of liquid appears to have changed, it could not have changed.

Nothing happened to change to liquid in the glass

Ex: they were equal to start with and nothing was added or taken away

Compensating for changes in one dimension by considering changes in another.

Ex: the glass is taller, but it is also skinnier.

Reversing an event to reason about the change?

Ex: if you pour it back into the first glass it will be the same

Well I just don't fucking know. Think of a means to get a goal? Probably not.

Forming cognitive representations of the actions needed to achieve a goal. Need to focus on goal AND steps. (maze)

The number of randomly presented items a person can recall with no delay.

4-5: 4 items

9-10: 6 items

Adults: 7+

1. Increased memory capacity
2. Increased control of attention
3. Executive functioning

1. Rehearsal- repeating the information to yourself
2. Organization- grouping related items
3. Elaboration- creating a relationship between two or more pieces of information that are not related to the same category.

Aspects of cognition associated with supervising and controlling lower-level cognitive processes (similar to self regulation)

Includes working memory, inhibitory/attention control and flexibility.

How do cultural contexts play a role?

How does the example of conservation show this?

Piaget, yeah, Pia-fucking-get, was criticized for underestimating children's abilities and exaggerating universality among all cultures.

Now, research shows that expertise (specific knowledge) is a result of culture and schooling.

Children from traditional nonindustrial cultures lag behind industrial ones in grasping the concept of conservation. They require training and to catch up.

MA- mental age (7 is average for seven year old) made by Binet and Simon

IQ- (CA/MA)x100  and IQ score of 100 is average for yoru age no matter what your age.

General intelligence- a fundamental faculty (whatever the fuck that means)

Multiple Intelligences- Howard Gardner; based on the way the brain is organized (like with categories and shit I DON'T CARE)

Intelligence consists of three processes...

1. Analytic- abilities used to judge, analyze, evaluate, compare and contrast.
2. Creative- to create, invent, discover, imagine or supposed
3. Practical- to apply knowledge in practical situations

Innatist- intelligence is innate and immune to training

Environmental- intelligence is specific and heavily dependent on experience

Asians are better than everyone at everything so they shouldn't count.

1. Language and language customs can make the test hard to understand.
2. Test content
3. Testing conditions
4. Rooted in schooled society
5. Cultures differ in modes of representation

A form of socialization in which adults engage in deliberate teaching of the young to transmit a culture's knowledge and skills.

1. Social enhancement- making use of resources present in the immediate environment.
2. Immitation- observing and copying the behaviors of others
3. Explicit Instruction- deliberate teaching of knowledge and skills (Formal Schooling)

National Council of Mathematics...

Shifts the focus from basic skills, procedures and memorization to conceptual understanding. Using meaningful problems.

Academic difficulties of children who do poorly in school despite having normal IQ scores.

1. Dyslexia- reading disorder
2. Dysgraphia- writing disorder
3. Dyscalculia- math disorder

• Entity- intelligence is fixed and not improvable with effort/learning (like innate)
• Incremental- intelligence can be improved as one learns and has new experiences (like environmental)

Attributions are common every day explanations for causes of behavior. Includes internal and external.

Mastery and Performance

• Social Cognition- understanding that others have mental states, and the ability to guage feelings, intentions and emotions of others.
• Comparison- to tendency to assess one's abilities, achievements and social status against peers.

Kids in middle childhood tend to self describe in social comparisons and are focused on interpersonal characteristics.

An individuals overall and specific positive and negative self evaluation.

1. Competence- related to the amount of discrepency between what a child desires and what he thinks he has achieved.
2. Acceptance- overall support the child feels they recieve from important people.

The ideal-self vs. the actual-self...

Discrepancy is a source of motivation for self improvement or source of distress/discouragement.

Children who control resources such as toys, play spaces and decisions about group activities.

Boys usually show physical aggression and girls show relational. However, verbal aggression increases for both.

Popular- get all the positive votes.

Rejected- get all the negative votes

Controversial- get positive and negative

Neglected- get NONE!

1. Rejected-aggressive- engage in high rates of conflict, hostility, hyper/impulsive behavior. Deficient social understanding.
2. Rejected-withdrawn- passive and socially awkward. Submissive = bullies pick on them.

• Neglected- less sociable but typically well adjusted. Perform academically better than rejects.
• Controversial- more aggressive than rejects; high relational aggression.

Shifts from external to internal...

• Less focused on rewards and punishments
• Internalized social rules/norms
• Develop sense of right and wrong

The period of tension.

Body becomes physcially and sexually mature, but financial and legal dependence go well past this. 

G. Stanley Hall said this is due to RAGING hormones. 

Boys- 9 inches

Girls- 6/7 inches

By the end they are 98% of their adult height.

Boys gain muscle and slim down. Girls gain more body fat.

Boys have larger lungs and better physical strength. Girls have better overall health and stress tolerance.

STUFF.

Executive functioning appears in frontal lobes. Myelination. Synaptic pruning (mas). An imbalance in PFC and limbic system (emotions) leads to negative moods and risk taking behaviors.

Maturation of ovaries and testes due to increase estrogen/testosterone.

Menarche- first menstruation

Semenarche- first ejaculation

Girls- breast buds and public hair.

Boys- increased larynx and testes, facial hair, public hair.

• Early- mature, relaxed, independent, confident, attractive. More aggressive, poor academic performance.
• Late- anxious, over talkative, attention seeking. Poor body image which resolves late.

• Early- withdrawn, lacking self confidence, stressed. Less positive body image, which persists. Have older boyfriends, which is BAD. Bad academic.
• Late- well adjusted, attractive, lively, sociable. leaders.

1. Personal fable- personal thoughts are unique and better than everybody else's
2. Invincibility fable- cannot be overcome or harmed by any normal thing
3. Imaginary audience- other people are watching and taking note of reactions.

1. Preconventional- stages 1 (heteronomous) and 2 (instrumental). Self centered. Focus on getting rewards and avoiding punishments. Common among children.
2. Conventional- stages 3 (good-child morality) and 4 (law-and-order). Social relationships and compliance with social laws. Adolescence and adults.
3. Postconventional- stages 5 (social contract) and 6 (universal ethical principles). Centered on ideals. Focuses on moral and ethical principles. Very few ever get here.

Made cause Kohlberg put women at lower level of morality than men. Two parts...

• Morality of justice- rightness, fairness and equality.
• Morality of care- relationships, compassion and social obligations

• Cliques- tightly structured groups of 5-7 friends. Provide emotional and security needs. Same sex --> mixed sex --> couples groups
• Crowds- Large, loosely structured. Based on stereotypes (jock, nerd, etc.) Provide opportunity to meet people, find romantic partners, explore social identity. ]

Homophily- the degree to which friends are similar to each other in terms of behavior, tastes, views and goals.

Deviance training- positive reactions to the discussions of rule breaking

1. Constraining interactions
2. Enabling interactions- enhance communication. Authoritative parenting. 

Created by Marcia.

1. Exploration- adolescents actively examine their possible future roles and paths
2. Commitment- allegiance to goals, values, beliefs and future occupation they have chosen

1. Idenity diffusion
2. Foreclosure
3. Moratorium
4. Identity Achievement