Term
| Linking neurons together can create _____, which are related to feeling & emotion, & cognitive behaviors |
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Definition
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Definition
| reflexes that do not require integration in the brain & also occur in higher animals (humans & other vertebrates) |
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Term
| What part of the brain contains the cerebrum? |
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Definition
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Definition
| a flattened region where cells that will become the nervous system lie in the very early embryo |
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Definition
| formed when the neural plate cells have fused with each other; forms by about 23 days of human development |
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Term
| 3 obvious divisions of the brain that come from the anterior portion of the neural tube |
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Definition
1. forebrain
2. midbrain
3. hindbrain |
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Definition
| hollow enlargements of the central cavity of the neural tube in the brain; formed by week 11 |
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Definition
| unmyelinated nerve cell bodies, dendrites, & axons |
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Definition
| mostly myelinated axons & very few cell bodies |
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Definition
| bundles of axons that connect different regions in the CNS |
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Term
| In vertebrates, the brain is encased in a bony _____ (AKA _____), & the spinal cord runs through a canal in the _____ |
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Definition
| skull/cranium; vertebral column |
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Term
| The body segmentation that is characteristic of many invertebrates can still be seen in the bony _____, which are stacked on top of one another & separated by disks of connective tissue |
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Definition
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Definition
| the 3 layers membrane that lie between the bones & tissues of the CNS |
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| 3 membranes that make up the meninges (in order from bones to neural tissue) |
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Definition
1. dura mater
2. arachnoid mater
3. pia mater |
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Term
| Which membrane of the meninges is the thickest? |
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Definition
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Term
| Which layer of the meninges is in the middle & is loosely tied to the inner membrane & leaves a subarachnoid space between the two layers? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the inner membrane of the meninges; a thin membrane that adheres to the surface of the brain & spinal cord |
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Term
| cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) |
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Definition
| a salty solution that is continuously secreted by the choroid plexus (a specialized region on the walls of the ventricles) |
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Term
| From the ventricles, CSF flows into the _____ between the pia mater & the arachnoid membrane, surrounding the entire brain & spinal cord in fluid |
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Definition
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Term
| To achieve protection, most of the 400 miles of brain capillaries create a functional _____ |
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Definition
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Term
| What are some symptoms of hypoglycemia (occurs when homeostasis fails)? |
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Definition
| confusion, unconsciousness, eventually death |
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Term
| Each spinal region is subdivided into segments, & each segment gives rise to a bilateral pair of _____ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| 2 branches into which a spinal nerve divides just before joining the spinal cord |
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Definition
| specialized to carry incoming sensory information; each spinal nerve has one |
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Term
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Definition
| swellings found on the dorsal roots just before they enter the cord; contains the cell bodies of sensory neurons |
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Term
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Definition
| carries information from the CNS to the muscles & glands |
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Definition
| part of the gray matter where sensory fibers from the dorsal roots synapse with interneurons |
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Definition
| part of the gray matter that contains cell bodies of motor neurons that carry efferent signals to muscles & glands |
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Term
| White matter can be divided into a number of _____ composed of tracts of axons that transfer information up & down the spinal cord |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| take sensory information to the brain |
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Term
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Definition
| carry mostly efferent signals from the brain to the spinal cord |
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Term
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Definition
| tracts that remain within the spinal cord |
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Term
| What is the oldest & most primitive region of the brain & consists of structures that derive from the embryonic midbrain & hindbrain? |
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Definition
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Term
| Where do 11 of the 12 cranial nerves originate? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| a diffuse collection of neurons that extends throughout the brain stem; many nuclei are associated with the reticular formation |
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Term
| medulla oblongata (AKA the medulla) |
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Definition
| the transition from the spinal cord to the brain proper |
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Term
| 2 types of tracts found in the white matter of the medulla |
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Definition
1. somatosensory tracts (ascending; bring sensory information to the brain)
2. corticospinal tracts (descending; convey information from the cerebrum to the spinal cord) |
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Term
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Definition
| a region of the medulla where about 90% of corticospinal tracts cross the midline to the opposite side of the body |
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Term
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Definition
| a bulbous protrusion on the ventral side of the brain stem above the medulla & below the midbrain |
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Term
| midbrain (AKA mesencephalon) (location) |
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Definition
| third region of the brain stem; a relatively small area that lies between the lower brain stem & the diencephalon |
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Term
| What is the second largest structure in the brain? |
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Definition
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Term
| diencephalon (AKA "between-brain") (location) |
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Definition
| between the brain stem & the cerebrum |
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Term
| What is most of the diencephalon occupied by? |
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Definition
| many small nuclei that make up the thalamus |
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Term
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Definition
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Definition
| where the two hemispheres are primarily connected |
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Term
| cerebral cortex (location) |
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Definition
| the outer layer of the cerebrum; only a few millimeters thick |
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Term
| The second region of cerebral gray matter consists of the _____ |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the third region of the cerebrum; surrounds the brain stem |
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Term
| 3 major areas of the limbic system |
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Definition
1. amygdala (linked to emotion & memory)
2. cingulate gyrus (linked to emotion & memory)
3. hippocampus (associated with learning & memory) |
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Term
| 3 systems that influence output by motor systems of the body |
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Definition
1. sensory system (monitors the internal & external environments & initiates reflex responses)
2. cognitive system (resides in the cerebral cortex & is able to initiate voluntary responses)
3. behavioral state system (resides in the brain & governs sleep-wake cycles & other intrinsic behavior) |
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Term
| What concept does cerebral lateralization of function (AKA cerebral dominance) give rise to? |
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Definition
| left brain-right brain dominance |
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Term
| 3 specializations of the cortex from a functional viewpoint |
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Definition
1. sensory areas (receive sensory input & translate it into perception)
2. motor areas (direct skeletal muscle movement)
3. association areas (integrate information from sensory & motor areas & can direct voluntary behaviors) |
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Term
| 3 pathways that terminate in the primary somatic sensory cortex in the parietal lobe |
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Definition
1. skin
2. musculoskeletal
3. viscera |
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Term
| visual cortex (location & function) |
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Definition
| occipital lobe; receives information from the eyes |
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Term
| auditory cortex (location & function) |
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Definition
| temporal lobe; receives information from ears |
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Term
| olfactory cortex (location & function) |
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Definition
| a small region in the temporal lobe; receives input from chemoreceptors in the nose |
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Term
| gustatory cortex (location & function) |
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Definition
| deeper in the brain near the edge of the frontal lobe; receives sensory information from the taste buds |
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Term
| 3 major types of motor output |
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Definition
1. skeletal muscle movement (controlled by the somatic motor division)
2. neuroendocrine signals (neurohormones secreted into the blood by neurons located primarily in the hypothalamus & adrenal medulla)
3. visceral responses (actions of smooth & cardiac muscle or endocrine & exocrine glands) |
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Term
| 2 places where voluntary movements that are initiated by the cognitive system originate |
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Definition
1. primary motor cortex
2. motor association area in the frontal lobes of the cerebrum |
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Term
| What type of neurons originate in the reticular formation in the brain stem & project their axons to large areas of the brain? |
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Definition
| diffuse modulatory systems |
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Term
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Definition
| the body's state of arousal or awareness of self & environment |
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Term
| reticular activating system |
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Definition
| a diffuse collection of neurons in the reticular formation that play an essential role in keeping the "conscious brain" awake |
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Term
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Definition
| how the measurement of brain activity is recorded |
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Term
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Definition
| an easily reversible state of inactivity characterized by lack of interaction with the external environment; the major rest period marked in humans |
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Term
| How is slow-wave sleep (deep sleep) (non-REM sleep)indicated on an EEG? |
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Definition
| delta waves (high amplitude, low-frequency waves of long duration that sweep across the cerebral cortex) |
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Term
| How is rapid eye movement (REM) sleep indicated on an EEG? |
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Definition
| it has a pattern closer to that of an awake person with low-amplitude, high-frequency waves |
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Term
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Definition
| networks of neurons in the hypothalamus where the primary "clock" resides along with secondary clocks that influence the behavior of different tissues |
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Term
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Definition
| internal signals that shape voluntary behaviors |
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Term
| 3 properties of drives (motivational states) |
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Definition
1. they create an increased state of CNS arousal or alertness
2. they create goal-oriented behavior
3. they are capable of coordinating disparate behaviors to achieve their goal |
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Term
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Definition
| the level of satisfaction that causes a motivated behavior to stop when it is reached; motivated behaviors may however continue despite feeling satiated |
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Term
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Definition
| similar to emotions but are longer-lasting, relatively stable subjective feelings related to one's sense of well-being |
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Term
| About what percent of people in the US are affected by depression? |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| when two stimuli are associated with each other, such as Pavlov's classic experiment in which he simultaneously presented dogs with food & rang a bell |
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Term
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Definition
| a change in behavior that takes place after repeated exposure to a single stimulus |
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Term
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Definition
| when an animal shows a decreased response to an irrelevant stimulus that is repeated over & over |
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Term
| What is the opposite of sensitization? |
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Definition
| the opposite of habituation; combined with habituation to help increase an organism's chances for survival |
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Term
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Definition
| the ability to retain & recall information |
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Term
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Definition
| pathways in which memories are stored throughout the cerebral cortex |
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Term
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Definition
| the inability to remember newly acquired information |
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Term
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Definition
| a limited storage area that can hold only about 7 to 12 pieces of information at a time; where a stimulus first goes when it comes into the CNS |
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Term
| What type of memory is associated with working memory? Where is it processed? |
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Definition
| a special form of short-term memory processed in the prefrontal lobes |
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Term
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Definition
| the storage area capable of holding vast amounts of information |
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Term
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Definition
| the processing of information that converts short-term memory into long-term memory |
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Term
| reflexive (implicit) memory (definition & what parts of the brain are involved) |
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Definition
| automatic & does not require conscious processes for either creation or recall; involves the amygdala & the cerebellum |
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Term
| Does declarative (explicit) memory require conscious attention for its recall? |
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Definition
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Term
| What disease is a progressive neurodegenerative disease of cognitive impairment that accounts for about half the cases of dementia in the elderly? |
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Definition
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Term
| 2 regions of the cerebral cortex that deal with integration of spoken language |
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Definition
1. Wernicke's area (at the junction of the parietal, temporal, & occipital lobes)
2. Broca's area (in the posterior part of the frontal lobe, close to the motor cortex) |
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Term
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Definition
| the condition where the person is unable to understand sensory input to Wernicke's area |
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Term
| Damage to Broca's area causes an _____ (Broca aphasia) |
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Definition
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Term
| Does schizophrenia have a genetic & environmental basis? |
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Definition
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