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| the 2 divisions of the nervous system |
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Definition
-Central nervous system (CNS)
-Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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| the 2 cell types of the nervous system |
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| ______ major parts of the CNS |
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| ______ broad regions of the brain |
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| central nervous system (CNS) |
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| Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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all nervous tissue outside of CNS
Nerves, ganglia, and nerve plexuses (outside of the CNS) |
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| the overall structure of the CNS |
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| the 3 broad regions of the brain |
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Definition
-forebrain
-midbrain
-hindbrain |
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| the 7 major parts of the central nervous system (CNS) |
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Definition
-spinal cord
-medulla oblongata
-pons
-cerebellum
-midbrain
-diencephalon
-cerebral hemisphere |
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the supporting cells of the nervous system
they provide help and support to the neurons |
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| the cell body, where the organelles are housed for the cell |
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| the finger-like projections that come out of the cell body of a neuron |
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| the parts of the neuron responsible for receiving information from other upstream neurons |
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-cell body aka soma
-dendrites |
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| the long projection out of the neuron's cell body that conducts action potentials |
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| where the action potentials in a neuron start |
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[image]
the fingerlike projections at the very end of the axon
nerve terminals house neurotransmitters |
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| which part of the neuron houses neurotransmitters? |
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Definition
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| how a signal is transmitted from one neuron to the next |
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Definition
| neurotransmitter is released from the very end of the nerve terminal into the synaptic space |
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| some functional classes of neurons |
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Definition
-afferent neurons
-efferent neurons
-interneurons |
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| some types of efferent neurons |
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Definition
-somatic motor neurons
-autonomic motor neurons |
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Definition
Multipolar neuron located entirely within the CNS
basically serves as a short connector between other neurons |
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| Neuron that transmits impulses from a sensory receptor into the CNS |
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| some components of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
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Definition
-Nerves
-ganglia
-nerve plexuses (outside of the CNS) |
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| Neuron that transmits impulses from the CNS to an effector organ; for example, a muscle |
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| Cablelike collection of many axons in the PNS; may be “mixed” (contain both sensory and motor fibers) |
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Definition
| Nerve that stimulates contraction of skeletal muscles |
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| Nerve that stimulates contraction (or inhibits contraction) of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle and that stimulates glandular secretion |
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| Grouping of neuron cell bodies located outside the CNS |
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| Nucleus (in the context of the CNS) |
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| Grouping of neuron cell bodies within the CNS |
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| Tract (in the context of the CNS) |
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Definition
| Grouping of axons that interconnect regions of the CNS |
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| difference between nuclei and ganglia |
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| nuclei are in the CNS while ganglia are in the PNS |
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| difference between fibers and tracts |
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| tracts are in the CNS while fibers are in the PNS |
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| some ways neurons are classified |
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Definition
-functionally
-morphologically
-neurotransmitter released |
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| neurons w/ long axons that project to regions far away, but are housed or contained completely within the CNS |
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| the morphological classes of neuroons |
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Definition
-pseudounipolar
-bipolar
-multipolar |
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| how neurons are classified morphologically |
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Definition
| their shape and the number of processes emanating from the cell body or the soma |
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| types of neurons that are multipolar neurons |
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Definition
efferent and projection neurons
this is basically the morphological class of the prototypical neuron |
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| types of neurons that are bipolar neurons |
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Definition
| retina and other sensory systems |
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| types of neurons that are pseudounipolar |
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| the 4 major types of glial cells that are housed in the CNS |
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Definition
-ependymal cells
-astrocytes
-oligodendrocytes
-microglia |
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Definition
| specialized epithelial cells that line the brain ventricles and central canal of the spinal cord |
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| glial cells that form the myelin sheath around axons in the CNS |
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| how oligodendrocytes create myelin sheaths |
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Definition
| by wrapping their plasma membranes around the axon |
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-immune function
-phagocytic
-anti-inflammatory |
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| the most abundant type of glial cell |
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Definition
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| what is the white matter in the brain? |
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Definition
| myelin sheaths in the brain, especially axons that are heavily myelinated |
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Term
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Definition
| -Glucose uptake from blood; lactate delivery to neurons
-K+ re-uptake
-Neurotransmitter (glutamate) re-uptake
-Glutamate/Glutamine shuttle to re-supply neurons with neurotransmitter
-Synaptogenesis & neurogenesis
-Establish & maintain the blood-brain barrier |
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| what the astrocyte does after it takes up glucose from the bloodstream |
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Definition
| converts it to lactate, which is given to neurons as an energy source |
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| astrocytes re-uptake K+, especially in and around... |
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Definition
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Term
| the glutamate/glutamine cycle between neurons and astrocytes |
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Definition
[image]
-neuron releases glutamate into synapse
-astrocyte takes it up and converts it to glutamine
-astrocyte gives glutamine to the neuron, which converts it back to glutamate |
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Definition
| creation of new synaptic connections |
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Definition
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| what the blood-brain barrier separates |
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Definition
| the blood supply system and the interstitial fluid of the brain |
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| one oligodendrocyte creates how many internodes? |
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Definition
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Definition
| a single patch of myelin sheath |
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Definition
they insulate and myelinate the axons in the peripheral nervous system
[image] |
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| a Schwann cell produces how many internodes? |
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Definition
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Definition
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Definition
| sheath of Schwann (neurilemma) |
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Definition
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Definition
sheath of Schwann cell that wraps around the axon in the peripheral nervous system
[image] |
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Term
| All PNS axons are encapsulated by... |
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Definition
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Term
| some characteristics of multiple sclerosis |
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Definition
-Autoimmune disease of the CNS
-Most common type of demyelinating disease
-Scleroses = scars (lesions) where myelin is lost
-Hinders ability of axons to conduct impulses
-No cure; treat symptoms |
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Term
| some symptoms of multiple sclerosis |
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Definition
-Relapsing, remitting, progressive
-Cognitive impairment
-Balance/coordination difficulties
-Vision problems
-Mood effects
-Pain
-Numbness |
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Term
| depiction of what multiple sclerosis does to axons |
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Definition
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| why multiple sclerosis is classified as an autoimmune disease |
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Definition
| because the body produces antibodies and an immune response against the myelin |
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| why the symptoms differ between multiple sclerosis patients |
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Definition
| because different patients can have different neurons affected |
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| the most common type of demyelinating disease |
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Definition
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Term
| the 4 distinct regions of a neuron |
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Definition
1: Dendrites
2: Soma
3: Axon
4: Nerve terminal
[image] |
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Term
| dendrites and soma are about... |
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Definition
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| where neurotransmitters get released |
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Definition
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| the axon and nerve terminals are about... |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| action potential conduction |
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Term
| the function of the nerve terminal |
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Definition
| synaptic transmission (transmitting information) |
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| function of dendrites & soma |
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Definition
| synaptic potentials & integration (receiving information) |
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Term
| some aspects of communication within the nervous system |
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Definition
-Information flow between neurons
-Information flow within a neuron
-Chemical & electrical signals |
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Term
| how neuronscommunicate with other neurons |
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Definition
| largely by chemical signals |
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| how information flows within a single neuron |
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Definition
| largely dependent on changes in membrane potential, that is, electrical signals |
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Term
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Definition
| the membrane potential can vary far away from resting membrane potential |
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Term
| the 4 major ions for which cells maintain a concentration gradient |
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Definition
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| the major determinant of the resting membrane potential |
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Definition
| the leaky K+ channels that are always open |
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Term
| some electrically excitable cells |
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Definition
-Neurons
-muscle cells
-cardiac cells |
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Term
| The membrane potential (Vm) fluctuates due to... |
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Definition
| changes in the plasma membrane’s permeability to various ions |
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Term
| how gthe permeability of a membrane changes |
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Definition
| opening and closing of ion channels |
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Term
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Definition
| Vm becomes more positive relative to Vr |
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Term
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Definition
| Vm becomes more negative relative to Vr |
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Term
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Definition
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| how the voltage is measured in a neuron |
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Definition
electrode and oscilloscope
[image] |
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Term
| Electrical excitability is mediated by... |
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Definition
| changes in permeability through ion channels --> changes in Vm |
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Term
| what causes changes in Vm? |
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Definition
| changes in permeability through ion channels |
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Term
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Definition
transmembrane proteins that conduct ions
[image] |
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Term
| are ion channels general or specific? |
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Definition
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Term
| why ion channels regulate permeability |
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Definition
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Term
| some types of gated ion channels |
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Definition
-Voltage-gated
-Ligand-gated
-Mechanically-gated |
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Term
| types of gated ion channel that are expressed in nerve cell membranes |
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Definition
-voltage-gated ion channels
-ligand-gated ion channels |
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Term
| voltage-gated ion channels |
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Definition
| ion channel that senses changes in the charge gradient across the membrane, causing the channel to open or close |
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Term
| when the voltage-gated ion channels open up |
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Definition
| usually when the membrane is depolarized |
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Term
| where in the nerve cell voltage-gated ion channels are usually located |
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Definition
| axonal membrane and nerve terminal |
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Term
| where in the nerve cell ligand-gated ion channels are usually located |
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Definition
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Term
| mechanically gated ion channels |
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Definition
| stretch or deformation of the membrane causes the channel to open or close |
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Term
| some types of voltage-gated ion channels that affect membrane potential |
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Definition
| -Na+ channels
-Ca2+ channels
-K+ channels
-Cl- channels |
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Term
| what causes a voltage-gated ion channel's central pore to open or close? |
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Definition
| the rotation up or down of an alpha-helix |
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Term
| some details about the action potential that goes down an axon |
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Definition
| [image]
-A propagated electrical “wave” running the length of the axon
-Stereotypical (same length, amplitude, etc.)
-Fixed amplitude, ~ 100 mV (from -70 mV to +30 mV)
-All-or-none event
-Threshold, ~ -55 mV
-Shape & duration of the waveform reflects changes in membrane permeability to Na+ and K+ |
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Term
| the threshold for a neuron to produce an action potential |
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Definition
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Term
the shape & duration of the waveform reflects...
[image] |
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Definition
| changes in membrane permeability to Na+ and K+ |
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Term
| the cycle of the "fast" Na channel |
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Definition
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Term
| when the "fast" Na channel becomes open |
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Definition
| when the membrane depolarizes |
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Term
| the 3 distinct states of the "fast" Na channel |
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Definition
-channel closed
-channel open
-channel inactivated |
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Term
| why the "fast" Na channel follows the cycle it does |
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Definition
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Term
| the 2 gates on the "fast" Na channel |
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Definition
-Main gate
-Inactivation gate
[image] |
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Term
| when the "fast" Na channel goes from inactivated to fully closed |
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Definition
| when the membrane returns to resting membrane potential (Vr) |
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Term
| the 2 distinct states of the "slow" K channel |
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Definition
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Term
| when the "closed" K channel is closed |
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Definition
| when the membrane is at resting membrane potential (Vr) |
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Term
| when the "closed" K channel is open |
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Definition
| when the membrane is depolarized |
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Term
| how the "fast" Na channels and "slow" K channels act during the formation of an action potential |
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Definition
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Term
| what happens when the neuron reaches the membrane potential? |
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Definition
| all the Na channels open, then the K channels |
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Term
| the repolarizing effects that happen right after the creation of an action potential |
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Definition
-Na channel gets inactivated
-K channel opens |
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Term
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Definition
the membrane potential dipping below resting membrane potential after the creation of an action potential
[image] |
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Term
| what causes "undershoot" (dipping below the resting membrane potential after the creation of an action potential)? |
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Definition
the K channels opening up more slowly than the Na channels
[image] |
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Term
| comparison of how fast Na and K diffuse through the channels |
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Definition
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Term
| Absolute refractory period is due to... |
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Definition
| the properties of the sodium channel |
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Term
| the role of the refractory period |
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Definition
-Ensures unidirectionality of nerve impulse
-Places limits on A.P. frequency |
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Term
| types of refractory periods |
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Definition
-absolute
-relative
[image] |
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Term
| 2 things that ensure unidirectionality of an action potential |
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Definition
-refractory period
-inactivation of Na channels |
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Term
| when the axon does not act as a "magic rope" |
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Definition
-when there's subdepolarizations (below threshold) in the axon hillock
-when there's hyperpolarizations in the axon hillock |
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Term
| what happens to the action potential when the axon does not act like a magic rope? |
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Definition
the signal dissipates very quickly
[image] |
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Term
| some features of axons that increase conduction velocity |
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Definition
-Increase axonal diameter
-Myelinate the axonal membrane |
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Term
| some features of myelinated axons that increase conduction velocity |
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Definition
-Myelin provides insulation
-“Saltatory” conduction due to myelin and nodes of Ranvier |
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Term
| why there's dissipation of current in an axon |
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Definition
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Term
| how increased axonal diameter increases conduction velocity |
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Definition
| it increases the amount of current that can go through the axon |
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Term
| how myelin sheaths benefit neurons |
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Definition
-providing insulation
-decreasing leak |
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Term
| the trade-off with thicker axons |
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Definition
| larger surface area, which means more channels |
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Term
| how thicker axons compensate for the increased leak risk created by more channels |
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Definition
| they get more heavily myelinated |
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Term
| how the myelin internodes increase the speed of conduction |
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Definition
| by allowing the sodium current to make its way more quickly down the core of the axon to the next Node of Ranvier |
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Term
| how the piece of axon membrane gets depolarized at a Node of Ranvier |
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Definition
| the positive current moves down that axon to where the node is |
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Term
| why the Na channels upstream of the action potential don't get triggered by the same action potential |
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Definition
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Term
| myelinated axon vs. unmyelinated axon: flow of signal |
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Definition
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Term
| how communication occurs between neurons |
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Definition
| synaptic transmission aka neurotransmission |
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Term
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Definition
release neurotransmitters into the extracellular space in response to an action potential
[image] |
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Term
| the type of signaling used by most synapses |
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Definition
chemical (neurotransmitters)
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
thin slice of extracellular space between neurons
[image] |
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Term
| components of the presynaptic cell |
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Definition
-Nerve terminal
-Synaptic vesicles
[image] |
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Term
| components of the postsynaptic cell |
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Definition
Cell surface receptors
[image] |
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Term
| flow chart for neurotransmission |
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Definition
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Term
| the 3 general steps of neurotransmission |
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Definition
1: Release of neurotransmitters (NTs) from presynaptic nerve terminal
2: Interaction of NTs with post-synaptic cell membrane
3: Removal of NTs from synaptic cleft |
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Term
| the events in the presynaptic cell |
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Definition
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Term
| how voltage-gated Ca2+ channels work |
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Definition
-they open and close in response to action potential
-the depolarization provided by the Na channels provides the depolarization for the Ca channels |
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Term
| what happens when Ca enters the presynaptic cell? |
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Definition
The calcium sensors on the neurotransmitter vesicles and elsewhere react with Ca, leading to the concerted, rapid exocytosis of the neurotransmitter from the nerve terminal into the synaptic cleft.
[image] |
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Term
| some types of Small-molecule NTs |
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Definition
-Acetylcholine (Ach)
-Amino acids
-Purines (ATP)
-Biogenic amines |
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Term
| some types of peptide NT's |
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Definition
-Endogenous opioids
-Neuropeptide Y |
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Term
| some types of gaseous NT's |
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Definition
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Term
| some types of neurotransmitters (NT's) |
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Definition
-small-molecule NT's
-peptide NT's
-Endocannabinoids (lipids)
-Gases (NO, CO) |
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Term
| some amino acids that can function as small-molecule NT's |
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Definition
-Glutamate (Glu)
-Aspartate (Asp)
-GABA
-Glycine (Gly) |
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Term
| some types of biogenic amines that can act as small-molecule NT's |
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Definition
-Catecholamines (Tyr-deriv.)
-Serotonin (5HT) (Trp-deriv.) |
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Term
| some types of Catecholamines (Tyr-deriv.) that act as neurotransmitters |
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Definition
-Dopamine (DA)
-Norepinephrine (Norepi)
-Epinephrine (Epi) |
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Term
| the largest group of neurotransmitters (most of our neurotransmitters) |
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Definition
|
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Term
| many small-molecule NT's are derived from... |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
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Definition
| the major excitatory neurotransmitter of the CNS |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
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Definition
| the major inhibitory neurotransmitter of the CNS |
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Term
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Definition
| receptors that cause depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane |
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Term
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Definition
| receptors that cause hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane |
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Term
| catecholamines are derived from... |
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Definition
|
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Term
| serotonin (SHT) is derived from... |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| The response of the post-synaptic cell is dependent on... |
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Definition
| the type/sub-type of NT-receptor present |
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Term
|
Definition
-LGICs (ligand-gated ion channels)
-GPCRs (G-protein-coupled receptors) |
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Term
|
Definition
| ligand-gated ion channels |
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Term
|
Definition
| G-protein-coupled receptors |
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Term
| types of receptor proteins likely to be expressed at the postsynaptic membrane |
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Definition
-ligand-gated ion channels
-G-protein coupled receptors
[image] [image]
the green balls represent the neurotransmitters |
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Term
| how change in the membrane potential (Vm) occurs in ligand-gated ion channels |
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Definition
directly by passing through the channel
[image] |
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Term
| how change in the membrane potential (Vm) occurs in G-protein coupled receptors |
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Definition
indirectly via the heterotrimeric G-protein
[image] |
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Term
| differences between change in membrane potential (Vm) using ligand-gated ion channels and that using G-protein coupled receptors |
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Definition
-with ligand-gated ion channels, it's direct and faster
-with G-protein coupled receptors, it's indirect and slower |
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Term
|
Definition
| Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential |
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Term
|
Definition
| Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential |
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Term
| Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (“EPSP”) |
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Definition
| Depolarization of the receiving cell |
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Term
| Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (“IPSP”) |
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Definition
| Hyperpolarization of the receiving cell |
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Term
| types of electric responses of the post-synaptic cell |
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Definition
-Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential (“EPSP”)
-Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential (“IPSP”) |
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Term
| the parts of the neuron that lie on the postsynaptic side |
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Definition
-dendrites
-soma (cell body)
remember, they're responsible for receiving information |
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Term
| ligand-gated ion channels aka... |
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Definition
|
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Term
| G-protein coupled receptors aka... |
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Definition
|
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Term
| 2 postsynaptic receptors that acetylcholine (Ach) can bind to and activate |
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Definition
-nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR), which is a ligand-gated ion channel for acetylcholine
-muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAchR), which is a G-protein coupled receptor for acetylcholine |
|
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Term
| nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAchR) |
|
Definition
a ligand-gated ion channel for acetylcholine that causes an EPSP
[image] |
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Term
| muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAchR) |
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Definition
M2: a G-protein coupled receptor for acetylcholine that causes an IPSP
[image]
this is the postsynaptic part of a heart cell |
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Term
| why acetylcholine can cause different responses in different cells |
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Definition
| because of its interactions with different types of receptors |
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Term
| the ions that pass through the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) |
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Definition
| Na+ and K+ in opposite directions
[image] |
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Term
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Definition
| Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) |
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Term
| if the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) allows movement of Na+ and K+ in opposite directions, then why does a depolarization result? |
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Definition
| because Na+ moves into the cell faster than K+ moves into it |
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Term
| acetylcholine binding to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor (nAChR) can induce an EPSP (stimulatory) or IPSP (inhibitory) response depending on... |
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Definition
-the type of muscarinic receptor
-the intracellular machinery the receptor is coupled to |
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Term
| the types of muscarinic receptors that acetylcholine can bind to |
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Definition
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Term
| what the heterotrimeric G-protein is made of |
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Definition
3 different supunits:
-alpha-subunit
-beta-subunit
-gamma-subunit |
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Term
| what the heterotrimeric G-protein splits into |
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Definition
-an activated alpha-subunit
-a beta-gamma dimer
either of these can interact with a downstream protein to mediate physiological changes |
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Term
why this results in an inhibitory response
[image] |
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Definition
| because the beta-gamma dimer causes the K channel to open to allow the release of K+, causing a hyperpolarization |
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Term
| the generic cycle of heterotrimeric G-proteins |
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Definition
[image]
the purple ball is the neurotransmitter |
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Term
| the inactivated state of the G-protein |
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Definition
the one that has GDP on the alpha-subunit
[image] |
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Term
| how the G-protein gets activated |
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Definition
GDP on the alpha-subunit gets replaced with GTP
[image] |
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Term
| the downstream protein the beta-gamma dimer binds to |
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Definition
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Term
| the downstream protein the alpha-GTP binds to |
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Definition
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Term
| Passive mechanisms by which neurotransmitters leave the synaptic cleft |
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Definition
| Simple diffusion (neurotransmitter moving away from the synaptic cleft) |
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Term
| Active mechanisms by which neurotransmitters leave the synaptic cleft |
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Definition
-Reuptake (secondary active transporters)
-Digestion (enzymes) |
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Term
| synapses that use passive mechanisms to get neurotransmitters out of the synaptic cleft |
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Definition
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Term
| what does the reuptake of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft? |
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Definition
| secondary active transporters |
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Term
| what does the digestion of neurotransmitters in the synaptic cleft? |
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Definition
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Term
| where the secondary active transporters used for the reuptake of neurotransmitters are usually expressed |
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Definition
| nerve terminal membrane or glial cells |
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Term
| how digestion of neurotransmitters in acetylcholine synapses works |
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Definition
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Term
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Definition
| works in the synaptic cleft to convert acetylcholine into acetate and choline |
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Term
| types of proteins that are often expressed on the postsynaptic membranes of dendrites and soma |
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Definition
-ligand-gated ion channels
-G-protein-coupled receptors |
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Term
| general depiction of the synaptic integration process that occurs in postsynaptic neurons |
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Definition
[image]
the red curve is the response of the postsynaptic cell; this influences the creation of an action potential in the axon hillock |
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