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| Distinguish between an exocrine gland and an endocrine gland. |
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| Describe the process of gene activation. What is the hormone response element? What hormones primarily use the mechanism of gene activation? |
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| 1. In general, what is the major difference in the effect of a lipophilic versus a lipophobic hormone on proteins in the target cell? |
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| What does the term “half-life” represent? Generally, which hormones have a longer half-life, steroids or peptides? |
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| 1. What is the relationship of the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary? How is it different from the relationship of the hypothalamus to the anterior pituitary? |
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| 1. How does the hypothalamus control the release of the hormones of the anterior pituitary? |
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| What is the hypothalomo-pituitary portal system and its function? How is its configuration different from the usual artery-capillary-vein arrangement? |
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| What general effects does a tropic hormone have on a gland? |
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| What are the hormones of the thyroid gland? What is removed from T4 to make it a T3? |
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| What is the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid (HPT) axis? |
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| How can you have a normal thyroid gland yet suffer from hypothyroidism? |
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| What is thyroxine-binding globulin? Why is it important? Where is it made? |
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| 1. In Grave’s disease, antibodies act as TSH agonists. What does that mean and how would it affect thyroid secretion? |
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| What is the stimulus for parathyroid hormone release? If the parathyroid glands were removed, would it cause hypocalcemia or hyercalcemia? Why? |
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| Describe the relative electrical and chemical gradients of K+ and Na+ across the membrane at resting membrane potential |
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| What does a resting membrane potential of -70mv represent |
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| Transient changes in the resting membrane potential can occur in excitable membranes due to what characteristic of the plasma membranes |
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| What is a voltage-gated channel? What is a ligand-gated channel? What do they have to do with the permeability of the plasma membrane |
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| Describe the distinction between an ionotropic and a metabotropic receptor response to a neurotransmitter |
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| What do the terms hyperpolarization and depolarization mean relative to the resting membrane potential |
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| Describe the phases of an action potential. What ions are primarily involved at each stage |
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| What is meant by the threshold |
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| What is the all-or-none principle |
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| Injectable lidocaine is used to numb an area before surgery or before dental work. Lidocaine blocks Na+ gated channels. Why does lidocaine prevent feeling in the injected area |
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| What is myelin? What is saltatory conduction and what is its effect on the propagation of an action potentia |
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| Define the two types of refractory periods. What characteristic of the Na+ channels causes refractory periods to occur? What is the significance of the refractory period in terms of the propagation of an action potential |
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| Define synapse, synaptic cleft, pre-synaptic neuron, post-synaptic neuron |
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| Describe the process by which an action potential causes the release of the neurotransmitter |
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| What is calmodulin? What is its role in the release of neurotransmitters |
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| What is synapsin? What is its role in the release of neurotransmitters |
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| The Lambert-Eaton syndrome is one in which an individual’s antibodies destroy the Ca2+ channels in the synaptic knob. What effect would that have on the release of the neurotransmitters |
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| The Lambert-Eaton syndrome is one in which an individual’s antibodies destroy the Ca2+ channels in the synaptic knob. What effect would that have on the release of the neurotransmitters |
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| What is meant by EPSP? How do K+ and Na+ channels contribute to it |
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| What is meant by IPSP? How do K+ and Cl- channels contribute to it |
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| What is a cholinergic receptor? What are the two main types and how do they differ in the means by which they open/close ion channels |
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| What is an adrenergic receptor? What are the two main types |
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| In some places in the body norepinephrine can cause smooth muscle contraction and in other places it can cause smooth muscle relaxation. How can the same neurotransmitter have opposite effects |
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| In some places in the body norepinephrine can cause smooth muscle contraction and in other places it can cause smooth muscle relaxation. How can the same neurotransmitter have opposite effects |
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| What are dopamine, serotonin, and glutamate? NO |
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| What are the two major inhibitory neurotransmitters in the CNS |
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| In the movie Psycho (one of the best, if not THE best horror movies of all time), Norman Bates killed his mother and her lover with strychnine. Strychnine is antagonist at glycine receptors. They probably died of respiratory arrest. Why |
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| By what means is synaptic activity terminated, i.e., how do neurotransmitters stop affecting postsynaptic neurons |
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| What effect does inhibiting the reuptake of a neurotransmitter, e.g., serotonin, have on the response of the postsynaptic neuron |
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| What is acetylcholinesterase (AChE)? Nerve gases block the release of AChE, how would that result in death |
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| Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) were the first type of antidepressant to be used, starting in the 1950s. For some people today. they are the most effective antidepressant. Generally, under what principle do they work |
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| What is a graded potential? How does it differ from an action potential, i.e., what are its characteristics compared to those of an action potential |
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| What is temporal summation? What is spatial summation? How do they contribute to graded potentials? What has to occur in order for an action potential to occur |
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| Since the size of an action potential is independent of the size of the stimulus which initiated it, how does a stronger stimulus cause a stronger effect on a post-synaptic neuron |
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