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| What the types of structures in the human body |
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| study of how body works to maintains life. |
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1. Form a testable Hypothesis
2.Test Hypothesis.
3. Get support or reject hypothesis.
4. Form Theory. |
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| is maintance of a state of dynamitic constancy. |
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will go in the opposite direction.
3 main components of a negative feedback loop.
1. Sensor- senesces
2. Integrating center-r decides
3. Effecter- produces affect |
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is rare because it amplifies changes.
Ex. blood clotting, childbirth, and Ovulation. |
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| Extrinsic vs. intrinsic regulatory mechanisms |
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1. Extrinsic regulatory -control comes from outside of organ.
E.g. antagonistic effects of sweating and shivering control body temperature
2.Intrinsic regulatory - control is built in to organ being regulated. |
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specializes for contraction.
1. Skeletal-Voluntary-Multinucleated – individual controlled
2. Cardiac- in voluntary-striated –not individual controlled
3.Smooth- controlled by the ANS-not striated – is involuntary controlled |
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1.Neurons- is specialized for conducting electrical signals. Have a cell bodies, dendrites and axons.
A. Cell bodies-contains nucleus; is metabolic center
B. Dendrites-highly branched extensions off cell body.
C. Axon-single, long extension off cell body
Supporting and Glial cells-provide physical and functional Support for neuron. |
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Lines and covers body surfaces
It consist of differ shaped cells Squamous =flat Columnar= tall Cubical =cube like
Also the are stack in different levels simple=one cell thick and stratified=many cells thick.
Also the cells are characterized in having waterproof and non-water functions- non- keratinized =non- waterproof and Living cells and Keratinized= water proof and dead cells. |
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| - has lots of extra cellular material deposited in space between the cells. |
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| Dense fibrous connective tissue |
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| used for support and protection |
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formed as concentric layers of calcified material
Three types of cells.
1.osteo blast- bone forming cells
2.osteocytes – bone management
3.osteoclasts- bone eaters |
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| Systems order from small to big. |
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| Chemical-Cellular-tissue–organ-organ system system-organism |
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| are smallest units of the chemical elements |
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| is the sum of protons and neutron in atom. |
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| is a number of protons in the atom. |
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| orbitals or electron shells |
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| are layers around the nucleus. The first layer can only hold two electrons and the outer layers they are made up of 8 electrons. |
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| the outer most shell. It is used to chemical change and form bonds. |
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| is a different form of the same atom. The atomic number is the same but the atomic mass is different, because it contains different number of neutrons. |
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| molecules form by chemical bonding between Valance electrons of atoms. Number of bonds determined by number of electrons needed to complete the outermost shell. |
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| occurs when atoms share valence electrons |
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| is a bond that shared valence electrons equally. |
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| is a bond that shares valence electrons un-equally. Are pulled more toward one atom. |
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| occurs when valence electrons are transferred from one atom to another. |
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| Atom losses an electron and becomes more (+) |
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| Atom gains an electron and becomes more (-) |
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| is soluble in water. They like water. |
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| molecules are non-polar, they are afraid of water. |
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| When a H forms polar bond with another atom it takes a slightly + charge. |
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| PH 0-7 release protons (H+) in a solution (proton donor) |
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| PH 7-14 lowers H+ levels of a solution (proton acceptor) |
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0-7 is an Acid PH =log1
7-14 is Bases {H+}- |
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are those that contain carbon and Hydrogen.
Carbohydrates- are organic molecules that contain Carbon, Hydrogen and Oxygen in a ratio of Cn H2n On |
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| are simple sugars such as glucose, fructose, and galactose. |
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2 or more Monosaccharides joined covalently ex.
Sucrose or table sugar (=glucose + fructose)
Lactose or milk sugar (=glucose + galactose)
Maltose or malt sugar (=2 glucoses) |
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| are many Monosaccharides linked together. Include starch and glycogen, which are polymers of thousands of glucoses. Energy storage molecules. |
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| are insoluble in polar solvents such as water. afraid of water. Consist primarily of hydrocarbon chains and rings. |
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| if hydrocarbon chains of fatty acids are joined by single covalent bonds. |
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| if there are double bonds within hydrocarbon chains. |
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| - are lipids that contain a phosphate group. Phosphate part is polar and hydrophilic-head. Lipid part is non-polar and hydrophobic –tail. They form a circle and regulate what comes in and out of a cell. Phospholips bi-layer. |
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| are made of a long chain of amino acids. 20 amino acids can be used |
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| is its sequence of amino acids |
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| is caused by weak H bonding of amino acids. Results in alpha helix or beta pleated sheet shapes. |
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| is caused by bending and folding of shape polypeptide chains to produce 3-dimensional shape. Not very stable; can be denatured by heat, pH |
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| forms when a number of polypeptide chains are covalently joined. |
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include of DNA and RNA. Are made of a long Nucleotide. Which consist of a 5- carbon sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
pyrimidines(1 ring)
purines(2 rings) |
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| contains the genetic code-Its deoxyribose sugar (5C) is covalently bonded to 1 of4bases: Guanine or adenine (purines). Cytosine or thymine (pyrimidines). Chain is formed by sugar of 1 nucleotide bonding to phosphate of another. Each base can form hydrogen bonds with other bases. This hydrogen bonding holds 2 strands of DNA together. The 2 strands of DNA twist to form a double helix. |
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| Consists of a long chain of nucleotides joined together by sugar-phosphate bonds. Its ribose sugar is bonded to 1 of 4 bases: Guanine or adenine, cytosine and uracil (replaces Thymine). Single stranded. |
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| -Makes a copy of one gene of the DNA and carries that message to cytoplasm. |
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| brings AAs to growing polypeptide chain during translation |
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| The basic unit of function and structure of the body. |
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| Surounds and gives the cell its form, is selectively permeable. Formed by a double layer phospholids. Which restricts passage of polar componds. |
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| is a jelly like matrix with in a cell. Contain fluid like cytosol plus organells |
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| a latticework of microfilaments and microtubules filing the cytoplasm. Gives shape to the structure.3types from small to big . Gives shape and structure the cell in 3D Microfilaments>Intermediate Filaments > Microtubules |
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| Are cytoplasmic structures that perform specialized functions for cells. |
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| Are vesicle-like organelles containing digestive enzymes and matter being digested Involved in recycling components. Involved in programmed cell death. |
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| Are vesicle-like organelles containing oxidative enzymes. Involved in detoxification in liver. |
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| power house – Produces ATP: Adenosinetriphosphate Universal energy carrier fuels all cellular reactions.. -Contains maternal DNA. Site of cellular respiration. |
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| Contains DNA. DNA leaves cell replication and cell death. |
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| are lengths of DNA that code for synthesis of RNA. mRNA carries info for how to make a protein. Is transported out of nucleus to ribosomes where proteins are made. 1 gene=1 protien (kind of)Gene>mRna>protein. |
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steps-(occurs in the nucleus)
RNA pol binds to promoter region/Start codon of a particular gene to be copied
RNA pol separates a small section of the DNA
RNA pol makes a complimentary copy of 1 strand of DNA
Starts transcription @ start codon triple bond C=G double bond A=T
Transcription is terminated @ stop codon due to formation of hairpin loop in the pre- mRNA
RNA pol and pre-mRNA dissociate from DNA
Introns on the pre-mRNA are removed and the exons spliced together to make mRNA
mRNA leaves the nucleus |
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(occurs in the cytoplasm)
Ribosome binds to the mRNA
Ribosome can be free ribosome can be free ribosome in the cytoplasm OR
Ribosome can be studded on the rER
Small ribosomal subunit large ribosomal subunit, 1st tRNA with 1st AA Bind to the mRNA
1st tRNA with it’s AA binds @ the P site (peptidyl site) on the large ribosomal subunit
binds to mRNA due to anticodon
2nd tRNA binds mRNA via it’s anticodon @ the A site (acceptor site) of the large ribosomal subunit.
AA1 is transferred to AA2
Ribosome moves down mRNA by 1 codon
(2nd tRNA +AA2…AA1 is shifted to P site)
3rd tRNA with AA3 binds mRNA vis it’s anitcodon @ the A site of the large ribosomal subunit
AA2…AA1 is transferred to AA3
Repeat
Until the ribosome hits Stop codon
@stop codon ribosome mRNA and polypeptide chin dissociate |
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| Each nucleus contains 1 or more dark areas. These contain genes actively making rRNA. |
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| 25,000 genes- refers to all genes in an individual or in a species. 1 gene codes 4 proteins. |
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| 100,000 proteins - refers to all proteins produced by a genome. |
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Helicase binds to orgin of replication on the DNA
Helicase separates strands of DNA and single strand binding proteins bind to the DNA to stabilize the separated strands.
3’ to 5’ Strand (continuous)
Primase adds a short RNA primer to the DNA strand @ the origin of replication
DNA polymease makes a complimenty copy of the DNA by adding nucleotides to the short RNA primer.
DNA pol copies DNA
Nucleotide replacing enzyme removes short RNA primer and replaces it with the DNA nucleotides.
5’ to 3’ strand (discontinuouse)
Primase adds a short RNA primer to DNA
DNA pol binds and makes short chain of comlimentry
DNA (Okiazaki fragment)
Nucleotide replacing enzyme replaces short RNA primer with the appropriate DNA nucleotides
Repeat 1-3
Ligase binds to Okazaki fragments together
Repeat until all of DNA is copied. |
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| Semi-conservative replication |
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| each copy is composed of 1 new strand and 1 old strand. Original DNA sequence is preserved. |
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Inter phase non-dividing
G1 Growth phase –make proteins and organells normal Physiology
S DNA synthesis (Replication)
G2 Growth phase 2 -make proteins and organells
Mitosis- cell division
Prophase cell division
Prophase-Prep-Chromosomes become visible , distinct structures Nuclear envelop disappers Mitotic spindles and centrioles form
Metaphase-middle-chomosomes line up along midline of the cell
Anaphase-away-Chromosomes split and are pulled toward opposite sides of the cells
Telophase- cytokinesis TWO-nuclear envelope is reformed and cell divides. |
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| occurs when pathological changes kill a cell. |
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| occurs as a normal physiological response. Or programmed cell death. |
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Is type of cell division occurring in ovaries and testes to produce gametes (ova and sperm). Has 2 divisional sequences -DNA is replicated once and divided twice.
In 1st division, homologous chromosomes pair along equator of cell rather than singly as in mitosis. 1 member of homolog pair is pulled to each pole. This gives each daughter cell 23 different chromosomes, consisting of 2 chromatids.
In 2nd division each daughter divides; chromosomes split into 2 chromatids. 1 goes to each new daughter cell. Each daughter contains 23 chromosomes. Rather than 46 like mother cell. Which is why meiosis is called reduction division. |
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| Parts of one homologous chromosome are exchanged with its partner homolog |
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| What side you have more, you go the oppsite direction. |
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| Are short amino acid chain |
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| are less than 100 amino acids |
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| are equal or more than 100 amino acids. |
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| Law of complimentry base pairing. |
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| in DNA is C triple bonds with G. A double bonds with T. In RNA A double bonds with U. |
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| exact complimentry copy of the gene of intrest on the DNA. Includes introns and exons. -Longer than RNA. |
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| non-coding region. Not important |
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| Are biological catalysts that increase rate of chemical reactions. The nature of the reaction and the final products are not altered. |
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| Mechanism of enzyme action |
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| The 3 important factors that determine activity are: Temperature, shape and PH. |
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| Rate of product formation increases as substrate concentration increases Until reaction rate reaches a plateau. |
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| direction of reaction is from side of equation where concentration is higher to side where concentration is lower. H 2O + CO2 < >H2CO3 . |
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| include metal ions such as Ca+2, Mg+2, Mn+2, Cu+2, Zn+2and selenium. |
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| are derived from vitamins; transport small molecules needed by enzymes |
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| Refers to flow of energy in living systems. |
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| 1st law of thermo dynamics |
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| states that energy can be transformed but not created or destroyed. |
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| 2nd law of thermo dynamics |
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| states that energy transformations increase. Entropy (=degree of disorganization of a system) can be used to do work. |
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| When you a lose a electron. |
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| when you gain an electron |
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| Different cells have different preferred energy substrates . Brain uses glucose as its major source of energy |
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| Is all reactions in body that involve energy transformations |
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| breaks down molecules and releases energy . |
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| makes larger molecules and requires energy. Source of body’s large energy-storage compounds. |
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| Is metabolic pathway by which glucose is converted into 2 pyruvates. Does not require oxygen. Glycolysis is exergonic produces net of 2ATPs and 2NADHs. However, glucose must be activated with 2ATPs (phosphorylation) before energy can be obtained . Phosphorylation traps glucose inside cell , So the Phosphorylated organic molecules cannot cross the cell membrane Net equation= glucose + 2NAD + 2ADP + 2Pi > 2 pyruvates + 2NADH+2ATP |
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| To avoid end-product inhibition NADHs produced in glycolysis need to give H+s away. |
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| In absence of Oxygen 2NADH gives its Hs to pyruvate creating lactic acid. Makes muscles feel fatigued. Only yields a net gain of 2 ATPs per glucose. RBCs don’t have mitochondria; use only lactic acid pathway. Occurs in skeletal and heart muscle when oxygen supply falls below critical level. During heavy exercise or vascular blockage. |
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| (The production)For osmotic reasons cells can’t store many free glucose, Instead store glucose as glycogen. Skeletal muscle and liver store lots of glycogen. |
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| -(Breakdown) clips glucose out of glycogen as glucose 6-phosphate .Phosphate groups trap molecules in cells. |
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| Some skeletal muscle lactic acid goes to liver . Where it is converted back through pyruvate to glucose and glycogengy. Also can happen with amino acids and glycerol. Allows for depleted stores of glycogen in the muscle to be stored in 48 hours |
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| Begins when pyruvate formed by glycolysis enters mitochondria CO 2 is clipped off pyruvate forming acetyl CoA (coenzyme A is a carrier for acetic acid) CO 2 goes to lungs. Energy in acetyl CoA is extracted during aerobic respiration in mitochondria. Pyruvic+ coenzyme A > acetyl coenzyme A |
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Begins with acetyl CoA combining with oxaloacetic acid to form citric acid. In a series of reactions citric acid converted back to oxaloacetic acid to complete the pathway. NADH and FADH2 carry electrons to the electron transport chain. Every glucose turns the Krebs cycle 2times.
Produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH 2 in one turn of the Krebs cycle
Produces 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2 in two turns of the Krebs cycle |
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| is a linked series of proteins on the cristae of mitochondria. NADH and FADH 2 from Krebs carry electrons to ETC .Which are then shuttled in sequence through ETC . NAD and FAD are regenerated to shuttle more electrons from Krebs Cycle to ETC. Electrons added to beginning of ETC are passed along until reach end. Have to be given away or would stop ETC O 2accepts these electrons and combines with 4H+s O 2+4e- +4H+ >2H20 |
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| Oxidative phosphorylation |
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| As each protein in ETC accepts electrons it is reduced When it gives electrons to next protein it is oxidized . This process is exergonic Energy is used to phosphorylate ADP to make ATP. |
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| Energy gathered by ETC is used to pump H+s into mitochondrial outer chamber Creating high H+ concentrationthere concentration there . As H+s diffuse down concentration and charge gradient thru ATP synthase, and back into inner chamber, their energy drives ATP synthesis. |
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ATPcanbemade2ways:
Direct(substrate-level) phosphorylation .Where ATP is generated when bonds break Both ATPs in glycolysis made this way. 2 ATPs/glucose in Krebs made this way
Oxidative phosphorylation in Kreb’s. Where ATP generated by ETC 30-32 ATPs made this way.3H+spassthruATPsynthasetogenerate1ATP . 3H+s pass thru ATP synthase to generate 1 ATP . This yields 36-38 ATPs/glucose . However some of these are used to pump ATPs out of mitochondria .So net yield is 30-32 ATPs/glucose . Really takes 4H+s to generate 1 exported ATP. 2.5 ATP produced for each pair of electrons NADH donates 1.5 ATP produced for each pair of electrons FADH 2 donates .Net of 26 ATP produced in ETC. 26 ATP produced in ETC 2 from glycolysis 2 from direct phosphorylation in Krebs For total of 30 ATPs for each glucose |
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