Term
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Definition
| The process that converts solar energy into chemical energy; Directly or indirectly nourishes the entire living world; Occurs in all plants, algae, and some prokaryotes |
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Term
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Definition
Sustain themselves without eating anything organic or derived from other organisms; Capture the energy of sunlight to make glucose
Producers of the biosphere producing glucose from inorganic CO2 and H20 |
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Term
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Definition
Obtain their organic material from other organisms;Consumers of the biosphere
Depend on photoautotrophs for energy and oxygen |
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Term
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Definition
| site where photosynthesis takes place; solar-powered chemical factories |
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Term
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Definition
| Site where chloroplasts are found; making up the interior tissue of the leaf |
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Term
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Definition
| Microscopic pores in leaves responsible for gas exchange; carbon dioxide can enter and oxygen can leave |
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Term
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Definition
| A light-absorbing pigment within chloroplasts that give leaves their green color. Plays a central role in converting solar energy to chemical energy. |
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Term
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Definition
| A saclike innermost membrane that contains chlorophyll in the chloroplasts of plant cells |
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Term
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Definition
| A stack of thylakoids found in chloroplasts |
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Term
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Definition
| The dense fluid within the chloroplast that surrounds the thylakoid membrane and is involved in the synthesis of organic molecules from carbon dioxide and water. |
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Term
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Definition
| 6 CO2 + 6 H20 + Light C6H12O6 + 6 O2 |
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Term
| Photosynthesis consists of: |
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Definition
The light dependent reactions (the photo part)capture the sun's energy
The light independent reactions (dark reactions)- The Calvin cycle use the energy captured in the light reactions to synthesize glucose |
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Term
| Electromagnetic radiation |
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Definition
| A form of electromagnetic energy which light belongs to |
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Term
|
Definition
| A way to measure the electromagnetic energy of light; The distance between crests of waves |
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Term
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Definition
| A fixed quantity of energy, the shorter the wavelength the light, the greater the energy of its photon. |
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Term
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Definition
Any color in plant or animal cells; substances that absorb light
Different pigments absorb different wavelengths |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| Colors that are best absorbed |
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Definition
| Violet-blue and Red Light |
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Term
|
Definition
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|
Term
| Why do leaves appear green? |
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Definition
| Because Chlorophyll reflects(transmits) green light |
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Term
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Definition
| Measures a pigments ability to absorb different wavelengths of light. It separates light into the spectrum and sends it through the pigment. The percentage of light transmitted at each wavelength is measured |
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Term
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Definition
| The range of wavelengths over which electromagnetic radiation extends |
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Term
|
Definition
| A graph that shows a pigments light absorption as a function of wavelength |
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Term
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Definition
| Measures the effectiveness of different wavelengths in driving the process of photosynthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| first person to demonstrate the action spectrum of photosynthesis |
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Term
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Definition
| The main photosynthetic pigment and electron donor |
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Term
|
Definition
| Accessory pigment that broadens the spectrum used for photosyntheis |
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Term
|
Definition
| Accessory pigmnet that will absorb excessive light that would damage chlorophyll |
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Term
|
Definition
| Polar head where the light is absorbed consisting of nitrogen, oxygen, and magnesium; Nonpolar, hydrophobic tails consisting of hydrocarbons will fit into the phospholipid membrane of the thylakoid. Interact with hydrophobic regions of proteins inside thylakoid membrane. |
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Term
|
Definition
| essential for chlorophyll to have green color and without Magnesium chlorophyll would be unable to function |
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Term
|
Definition
| When a pigment absorbs light the electrons are boosted from the ground state to a higher energy state that is unstabl e |
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Term
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Definition
| The form of light (luminescence) when a excited electron fall back to the ground state, photons of lower energy than the light absorbed, are given off |
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Term
| An isolated solution of chlorophyll with fluorescence if illuminated with blue light |
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Definition
| Will give off red light and heat |
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Term
|
Definition
| A cluster of light-harvesting complexes(different pigment molecules bound to proteins) and a reaction center |
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Term
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Definition
| Functions first and absorbs light witha wavelength of 680 nm |
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Term
|
Definition
|
|
Term
| Photosystems are arranged: |
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Definition
| to funnel energy(energy travels in the form of excited electrons) to a special chlorophyll a molecule |
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Term
| Photosystem I and Photosystem II work together to form: |
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Definition
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Term
|
Definition
| Primary pathway which involves both photosystems and produce ATP and NADPH |
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Term
|
Definition
| Uses only photosystem I and produces only ATP (no NADPH; generates surplus ATP consumed in the Calvin cycle |
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Term
| The source of energy that chloroplast use to generate ATP by chemiosmosis is: |
|
Definition
| transfer light energy into the chemical energy of ATP |
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Term
|
Definition
| occurs the the stroma; uses the energy of ATP and NADPH to build a sugar molecule |
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Term
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Definition
| First step of Calvin cyrcle. An enzyme called Rubisco combines inorganic CO2 with a 5C organic sugar called RuBP. The unstable product splits into two molecules of 3C organic acid 3-PGA. |
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Term
|
Definition
| The second step in the Calvin cycle. NADPH reduces the organic acid 3-PGA to G3P using the energy ATP. |
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Term
| Regeneration of the 5C CO2 Acceptor |
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Definition
| The third step of the Calvin cycle. One 3C sugar is removed and used to make glucose; 5 molecules of 3C sugars(15C) are reorganized into 3 molecules of 5C sugars (15C) |
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Term
| Final product of Calvin cycle |
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Definition
| A 3-carbon sugar that can be used to make glucose is produced as CO2 is consumed |
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Term
|
Definition
| a process of metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, uses ATP, and yields no sugar |
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Term
| Light dependent reactions |
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Definition
| chlorophyll in the thylakoids transforms light energy into the chemical energy of electrons |
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Term
|
Definition
| Accepts an excited electron in the reaction center from the special Chl A |
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Term
|
Definition
| In Photosystem II on the inside of the thylakoid, facing the thylakoid space |
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Term
|
Definition
| builds up inside the thylakoid |
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Term
|
Definition
| Powered by the diffusion of H+ from the thylakoid space back into the stroma |
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Term
| ATP and NADPH are produced: |
|
Definition
| on the side facing the stroma where the Calvin cycle takes place |
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Term
| The electron transport chain generates |
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Definition
|
|
Term
| What is the first step in the Light Reaction process? |
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Definition
| Light hits the pigments in PS2 the energy travels in the form of excited electrons from one molecule to the next to a special chlorophyll a molecule |
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Term
| What is the second step in Light reaction process? |
|
Definition
| The electrons lost from chlorophyll A are replaced: by splitting of water into two protons, two electrons, and oxygen |
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Term
| What is the third step in the Light Reaction process? |
|
Definition
| The excited electrons travel to the reaction center where energy molecules are made |
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Term
| What is the fourth step in the Light Reaction process? |
|
Definition
| The primary acceptor sends electrons to a cytochrome complex that will carry out the electron transport chain to produce ATP |
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Term
|
Definition
Excited electrons are passed through an electron transport chain losing energy along the way
As the electrons give up energy it is used to establish a proton gradient (stored energy)
The proton gradient runs toward equilibrium releasing stored energy which is used to make ATP
All the electrons are transferred to NADPH |
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Term
| What is the fifth step of the Light Reaction process? |
|
Definition
| The low energy electron will be passed on to PSI where they again will be become excited with the input of light |
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|
Term
| What is the sixth step of the Light Reaction process? |
|
Definition
| The electrons will be accepted by NADP+ and will be reduced to NADPH |
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Term
|
Definition
| the ecosystem that produces the most food as a result of photosynthesis |
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Term
|
Definition
| food and the oxygen in our atmosphere |
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Term
| Sugar made in the chloroplasts |
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Definition
| supplies chemical energy and carbon atoms needed to synthesize the organic molecules of cells |
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Term
| Energy entering the chloroplasts as sunlight |
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Definition
| gets stored as chemical energy in organic compounds |
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Term
|
Definition
Growth- addition of new cells resulting in the increase of the number of cells
Repair - replacing dead or damaged cells
Reproduction - a new organism (offspring) is produced by division of parental cell |
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Term
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Definition
| The life history of a cell; Function is to produce daughter cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell(assuming no mutation has occurred) |
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Term
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Definition
| The cell that is capable of developing into any cell type |
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Term
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Definition
| As a cell divides the new cell will specializes to take on a particular structure and function |
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Term
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Definition
| In humans - partially specialized cells that can still divide and become many, but not all types of cells |
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Term
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Definition
| In humans - specialized body cells that usually cannot divide;Human cell containing 46 chromosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
| In humans- specialized cells that can divide;new germ cells are produced by mitosis |
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Term
|
Definition
| totipotent cells taken from blastulas or early embryos before cell specialization occurs; these cells have the potential to replace damaged cells and hold the potential cure for many disease and injuries - spinal cord and brain injuries, heart attacks, arthritis, diabetes, Parkinson's etc |
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Term
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Definition
| A method of asexual reproduction and cell division used by prokaryotic cells. It involves duplication of DNA, DNA attaches to cell membrane, and divides into two daughter cells |
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Term
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Definition
| (n)A term used when a cell only has one set of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) |
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Term
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Definition
| (2n)A cell consisting of two sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes) one set inherited from each parent |
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Term
|
Definition
| Joins haploid gametes to produce diploid zygote |
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Term
|
Definition
| Organized structure of DNA and protein found in the cell; DNA packaged with nucleosomes, present only during cell division |
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Term
| Duplication of chromosomes must: |
|
Definition
| precede all types of cell division in order for offspring to get a complete copy of every chromosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
| unwrapped active DNA wrapped around single nucleosomes, found in non-dividing cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| made up of a group of proteins called histones that adhere to DNA, spaced at regular intervals along the length of DNA, join together at the beginning of cell division packing the DNA into chromosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
| a single copy of DNA that is found in a chromosome |
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Term
|
Definition
| Two identical copies of a single chromosome attached to each other by a centromere |
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Term
|
Definition
| the part of the chromosome that links sister chromatids |
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Term
| Human Diploid Cells contain: |
|
Definition
23 pairs (46 total)
22 pairs of homologous pairs (autosomes)and 1 pair of non-homologous sex chromosomes (XX or XY) |
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Term
|
Definition
| These chromosomes are the same size/length, the centromeres are in the same location (same shape), contain the same genes(eye color)at the same position (loci)one comes from mother and one comes from father |
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Term
|
Definition
| 22 homologous pairs in diploid human cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| a diagnostic picture accounting for all chromosomes |
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Term
|
Definition
| caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21 physical characteristic changes and severe retardation |
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Term
| Extra copy of Chromosome 18 |
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Definition
| babies that are conceived are viable but very rarely survive, severely deformed, limited survival |
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Term
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Definition
| Different or alternative forms of the same gene |
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Term
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Definition
| A groove formed in an animal cell when the microfilaments that encircle the cell at the metaphase plate begin to shorten 'pinching" the cytoplasm. Cytokinesis is carried out by the formation of the cleavage furrow |
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Term
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Definition
| A disc like structure found inside the dividing cells in plants separating the daughter cells during cell division. Cytokinesis is carried out by the formation of the cell plate. |
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Term
| Random/Independent Assortment |
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Definition
| Tetrads align randomly or independently from each other; the orientation of each pair of homologs is randomly determined; maternal and paternal chromosomes may end up on either side of the metaphase plate |
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Term
| Random/Independent assortment/crossing over accounts for: |
|
Definition
genetic variability in sexually produced offspring
2 to the 23 power (8,388,608) is number of different chromosome combination possible by random assortment alone in humans |
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Term
|
Definition
| The pattern of cell division displayed by invertebrates |
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Term
|
Definition
| The pattern of cell division displayed by vertebrates |
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Term
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Definition
| Material present in the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic cells, important during cell division, the microtubule organizing center |
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Term
|
Definition
| An assemblage of microtubules and associated proteins that is involved in the movement of chromosomes during mitosis |
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Term
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Definition
| The membranes of eukaryotes that enclose the nucleus, separating it from the cytoplasm |
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Term
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Definition
| A specialized region on the centromere that links each sister chromatid to the mitotic spindle |
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Term
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Definition
| the pairing of replicated homologous chromosomes |
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Term
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Definition
| The process of homologous chromosomes exchanging segments that result in a re-arrangement of genetic information. |
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Term
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Definition
| 2 Homologous pairs of chromosomes that align in the metaphase stage. |
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Term
| Before a cell can begin mitosis |
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Definition
| Chromosomes must be duplicated |
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Term
|
Definition
| A type of cell division which produces new cells that contain a complete set of genetically identical material. Divides somatic and stem cells |
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Term
|
Definition
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Term
| Mitosis - Asexual reproduction |
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Definition
The creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent, without the participation of sperm and egg;
An asexual copy is a CLONE of the original;single-singled organisms some multi-celled organisms plants, sponges, flatworms (planana, tapeworms) |
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Term
|
Definition
The cell is not dividing, but is preparing for cell division
Cell growth occurs
Cells replicate their DNA
Nucleoli are present |
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Term
|
Definition
proteins and lipids are made
Cell increases its volume (it grows)
Some organelles are duplicated(centrioles) |
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Term
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Definition
| A resting place for cells that cannot get past the G1 checkpoint; cells continue normal metabolism |
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Term
| Interphase - S phase (Synthesis) |
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Definition
DNA is replicated or copies
Chromosomes grow from one chromatid to two chromatids |
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Term
|
Definition
Final preparation for cell division occurs
Excess protein and lipids accumulate |
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Term
|
Definition
| Follow Interphase: the cell begins to divide |
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Term
|
Definition
| Division of Nucleus (and its chromosomes) in prophase, metaphase, and anaphase |
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Term
|
Definition
| Division of cytoplasm in late Anaphase and Telophase |
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Term
|
Definition
Longest phase
Microtubules form the mitotic spindle between centrioles
Nuclear envelope breaks up
Chromatids become visible
Centrosomes move away from each other
Nucleolus disappears
Chromosomes condense
Kinetochares began to mature and attach to spindle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores |
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Term
|
Definition
Mitotic spindle is fully formed
Kinetochores attach chromosomes to mitotic spindle and align them along metaphase plate at the equator of the cell |
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Term
|
Definition
Centromeres divide
Sister chromatids separate and become full fledged chromosomes that move to opposite poles |
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Term
|
Definition
Chromosomes become less condensed and arrive at the poles
New nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis - the cytoplasm divides |
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Term
|
Definition
| Two genetically identical diploid (2n)cells |
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Term
| Meiosis (reduction division) |
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Definition
| A type of cell division that produces new cells containing only 1/2 of the complete set of genetic information. New cells are different;used for sexual reproduction; Divides germ cells (testes/ovaries) |
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Term
|
Definition
| It requires fertilization of an egg and sperm |
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Term
|
Definition
Gametes (egg and sperm)or sex cells
Meiosis I - produces two haploid cells
Meiosis II - produces four haploid cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| Symmetric - new cells are the same size or Asymetric - one new cell is larger than the other |
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Term
|
Definition
Chromosomes condense
Synapsis occurs - homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrad (4 chromatids) Chromatids of homologous chromatids cross over and exchange parts
Centrosomes move away from each other and form spindle microtubules between them
Nuclear envelope and nucleoli disperse
Spindle microtubules capture kinetochores and the chromosomes begin to move towards the metaphase plate
Crossing over occurs |
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Term
|
Definition
Chromosome tetrads are aligned on the metaphase plate.
Kinetochore microtubules from one pole of cell attach to one homologous chromosome and kinetochore microtubules from the other pole of the cell are attached to the other chromosome of the pair |
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Term
|
Definition
| Homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite poles |
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Term
|
Definition
The chromosomes arrive the poles.
The nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis occurs, producing two haploid daughter cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| A spindle forms in a haploid cell and the chromosomes move toward the middle of each cell |
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Term
|
Definition
| Chromosomes align single file on the metaphase plate, not in homologous pairs |
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Term
|
Definition
| Sister chromatids are pulled apart |
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Term
|
Definition
| Nuclei form at opposite poles of each dividing cell, and cytokinesis splits the cells apart producing four haploid cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| A protein secreted by certain body cells that stimulate other cells to divide |
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Term
| Density-dependent inhibition |
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Definition
| A phenomenon in which crowded cells stop dividing |
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Term
|
Definition
| Animal cells exhibit the need to be in contact with a solid surface |
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Term
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Definition
| Abnormally growing mass of body cells |
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Term
|
Definition
| The abnormal cells remain at the original site |
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Term
|
Definition
| Spreads into neighboring tissues and interrupting organ function |
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Term
|
Definition
| The spread of cancer cells beyond their original site |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cancers that originate in the external or internal coverings of the body, such as the skin or the lining of the intestine |
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Term
|
Definition
| Arise in tissues that support the body, such as bone or muscle |
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Term
|
Definition
| Cancers of blood forming tissues, such as bone marrow, spleen, and lymph nodes |
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Term
|
Definition
| An accident of meiosis or mitosis in which a pair of homologous chromosomes or a pair of sister chromatids fail to separate at anaphase |
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Term
|
Definition
| The loss of a fragment of a chromosome |
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Term
|
Definition
| When a fragment reattaches to the original chromosome but in the reverse orientation |
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Term
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Definition
| The attachment of a chromosomal fragment to a nonhomologous chromosome |
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Term
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Definition
| smallest unit having the capacity to live and reproduce, characteristics of life emerge at the level of cells |
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Term
|
Definition
an idealized process of inquiry
Problem solving process, try to change one variable at a time, process not dogma |
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Term
|
Definition
| a tentative answer to a well-framed question;must be testable and falsifiable |
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Term
|
Definition
| widely supported ideas A hypothesis that has been tested for its predictive power many times and has not yet been found incorrect (i.e.Darwin's Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection ) |
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Term
|
Definition
| A standard for comparison, identical to experimental group except for variable being studied |
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Term
|
Definition
| a group of subjects who are exposed to the variable under study |
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Term
|
Definition
| A testing procedure, designed to eliminate biased results, in which the identity of those receiving a test treatment is concealed from both administrators and subjects until after the study is completed |
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Term
|
Definition
| things that you can change in your experiment |
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Term
|
Definition
the variable being tested in a scientific experiment.
The dependent variable is 'dependent' on the independent variable. As the experimenter changes the independent variable, the change in the dependent variable is observed and recorded |
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Term
|
Definition
a particle with a negative one (-1)charge that has two atoms one oxygen atom and one hydrogen atom. The formula is OH-
Released by bases |
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Term
|
Definition
| Determined by the number of protons |
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Term
|
Definition
|
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Term
|
Definition
+ Positive
Found in the nucleus
(equals the atomic number) |
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Term
|
Definition
= or Non polar
Found in the nucleus
(combine with protons to make Atomic Mass)
= or Non polar
Found in the nucleus
(combine with protons to make Atomic Mass) |
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Term
|
Definition
- Negative
Found in the orbitals
have very little weight. |
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Term
|
Definition
| Same amount of protons have different number of neutrons (stable) |
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Term
|
Definition
| unique for each isotope and describes how long it takes for 1/2 the nuclei to decay |
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Term
|
Definition
| Each shell is different: number of electrons, number of orbitals, energy of electrons, distance from nucleus |
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Term
|
Definition
| an electron in the outer shell of an atom which can combine with other atoms to form molecules |
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Term
|
Definition
Elements are most stable when the orbitals are empty or full
Noble gasses all have full valence orbitals and are stable
Other elements will tend to gain, lose,or share electrons to become more stable. |
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Term
|
Definition
| 2 elements bonded together to form a charged ion |
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Term
|
Definition
PH scale of 1-6
contain H+ ions (Hydrogen Ions) |
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Term
|
Definition
PH scale of 8-14
Contain -OH (Hydroxyl Ions) |
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Term
|
Definition
| the bond that holds 2 ions together |
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Term
|
Definition
| sharing of electrons to yield full outer orbital |
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Term
|
Definition
| Electrons that not shared equally |
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Term
|
Definition
Electrons are shared equally
(2 hydrogens together or 2 oxygens together) |
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Term
|
Definition
| Bond the oppositely charged ends of polar covalent molecules |
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Term
|
Definition
| Hydrogen bonding forms a "skin" across water |
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Term
|
Definition
| the amount of energy necessary to raise 1 gram of water 1 degree celsius |
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Term
|
Definition
(how water gets from the roots of trees to the leaves)
Water will travel up a tube because it is adhesive to itself and cohesive to the xylem in the tree |
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Term
|
Definition
the energy required to transform a given quantity of a substance from a liquid into a gas at a given pressure
(other words: the amount of energy needed to turn liquid into gas) |
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Term
|
Definition
Percent Hydrogen Ion concentration
Closer to 0 = more acidic
Closer to 14 = more basic
7 = neutral |
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Term
|
Definition
| help protect against PH shifts |
|
|
Term
| Covalent bonding of carbon |
|
Definition
| Valence shell of carbon has 4 electrons to share needs 4 more to fill the shell. Each carbon atom will always form 4 non-polar covalent bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Simple sugar that has the same chemical formulas but are different (can be linear or ring form) |
|
|
Term
| Carbon carbon double bonds |
|
Definition
| Two pairs of electrons being shared |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Atoms or groups of atoms, that are covalently bonded to carbon backbone
also
Determines the chemical properties of a molecule |
|
|
Term
| Carbohydrates are? general terms |
|
Definition
Monosaccharide
Sugars, Starches, Cellulose, and Chitin |
|
|
Term
| Lipids are? (General Terms) |
|
Definition
Fatty acid chains
Mostly hydrocarbons
Fats, Oils, Steroids, Waxes |
|
|
Term
| Proteins are? general terms |
|
Definition
Amino acids - 20 different R-groups
Enzymes, Hormones, Structural molecules |
|
|
Term
| Nucleic Acids are? (General Terms) |
|
Definition
Nucleotide made of sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base
Genetic material, info and energy transfer |
|
|
Term
| Simple Sugars / Monosaccharides |
|
Definition
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| All carbohydrates have the same formula CH2O)n where n = 3-7 example glucose C6H12O6 |
|
|
Term
| Condensation Reaction or Dehydration Sythesis |
|
Definition
removal of water to build a polymer
enzymes remove an -OH from one monomer and H from another, a new covalent bond is formed
Anabolic reaction
Water is formed when H and OH combine |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
Consists of many monosaccharides
Function as energy storage molecules and structural support molecules |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
addition of water to separate polymer
Catabolic reacton
Enzymatic addition of H and OH break covalent bonds |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Storage polysaccharide found in plants made up of Glucose monomers arranged differently than other polysaccharides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
| Storage polysaccharide that is found in animals made up of glucose monomers arranged differently than other polysaccharides |
|
|
Term
|
Definition
MOST abundant organic compound on earth.
Found in Plant cell walls providing structural support.
Made up of glucose monomers arranged differently than other polysaccharides |
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A major structural component of arthropods
made up of glucose monomers arranged differently than other polysaccharides |
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Long straight chain of carbon and hydrogen
made of animals
no C=C bonds |
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contains at least one double bonded carbon atom that puts a kink in the long chain of carbon and hydrogen
made by plants
(liquid at room temperature) |
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| Building block for lipids, made of long chain of hydrocarbons up to 36C, with COOH end groups, can be linear or bent into rings |
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| A 3C molecule, building block for lipids |
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| made of 3 fatty acid chains linked to a glycerol molecule |
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| have 2 fatty acid tails and a phosphate group-polar head, non-polar tails |
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long fatty acid bent into a complex ring structure Four fused carbon rings (6,6,6,5)
Example (cholestrol) |
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| A double layer of phospholipids arranged by hydrophobic (inside) and hydrophilic (outside) properties |
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| Both polar and nonpolar properties as well as hydrophobic and hydrophillic properties |
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Building Block of Proteins
(20 common amino acids have the same structure but different R-group) |
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the variable in an amino acid
(its what makes each one different) |
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| Bonds amino acids together by dehydration synthesis |
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| Primary structure of a protein |
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| A long chain of polypeptides (necklace) |
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| Secondary structure of a protein |
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| Hydrogen bonds form to make helix and pleated sheets |
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| Tertiary Structure of a protein |
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| A 3-D shape is formed by polar and nonpolar bonds and also hydrophobic and hydrophilic interaction *Must have this stage to be a protein* |
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| Quaternary Structure of a Protein |
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| two or more proteins join together stabilized by disulfide bonds |
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| Multiple amino acids in a long chain by peptide bonds |
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| Influence of environmental conditions on protein structure (causes hydrogen bonds to break) |
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refers to DNA
Two nucleic acid strands joined into a twisted (helical) molecule |
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first to evolve, most primitive
simple structure, no nucleus, or internal membrane-enclosed structures
DNA in nucleoid region |
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More recently evolved and complex
True nucleus plus internal membrane enclosed structure -organelles |
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single-celled organisms
protein cell capsules
extremophites, thrive in hostile environment
first to evolve, ancestor of all other types of cells
biochemically unique |
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Cell walls
Single-celled, colonial, multicelled organisms
Autotrophic or heterotrophic |
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Carbohydrate(chitin)cell walls
Heterotrophic
Multi-cellular or single celled yeast
antibotics derived from some molds |
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Cellulose cell walls
Autotrophic
Multicellular with highly specialized tissues and organs |
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No cell walls
Heterotophic only
Multicellular with highly specialized tissues and organs |
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| membrane compartments or structure of a cell |
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| Surface area to volume ratio |
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Things that have more surface area have more room for diffusion so materials can move into and out of cell more regularly
The smaller a cell the more surface area it has in relationship to volume |
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| made of cellulose only found around plant cells, provides and maintains shape of the cell and serves as a protective barrier |
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| substance that plant cell walls are made of |
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| phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, protective/selective barrier |
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| stores genetic information, contains cell DNA |
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| unpackaged DNA wrapped around single nucleosomes, found in non-dividing cells, active DNA with full access to genetic information |
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| site of ribosomal synthesis, site of transcription |
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| site of protein synthesis/translation |
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primary structure for packaging of cellular secretions for export from the cell
stacks of flattened membranes with swollen ends |
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| vehicles for transporting materials throughout the cell |
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| Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum |
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transport proteins newly made inside the cytoplasm
single membranes stacked and flattened
covered with ribosomes
produce secretory proteins |
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| Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum |
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branched-tree like structure
synthesize lipids
liver -process drugs, alcohol, harmful substances
Storage of calcium ions |
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| A fluid found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells. This fluid contains primarily water, dissolved ions, and a complex mixture of molecules |
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| Cell fluids and organelles within the cell membrane but outside the nucleus. Contains cytosol(water/dissolved molecule , organelles, and insoluble particles(macromolecules) |
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| transporter organelle that is used to deliver particles within the cell to the outside of the cell |
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| vesicles with a specialized function of cell digestion |
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| specialized vesicles for storage of water, nutrients, and metabolites, waste products |
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| when a cell commits suicide (programmed cell death) so it can't become cancerous |
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| makes the energy for a cell called ATP |
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contain chlorophyll to absorb solar energy
site of photosynthesis/glucose production |
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| A catabolic pathway for the production of ATP derived from the breakdown of glucose |
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| Mitochondria and chloroplast were once independent prokaryotic organisms that came to exist inside the cytoplasm of other cells as a result of symbiotic (co-dependent) relationships |
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| folds of the inner membrane of the mitochondria |
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no chlorophyll
contains additional pigments
colors leaves, fruits, flowers |
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thickest structural element of the cytoskeleton
hollow tube composed of tubulin arranged in a helix
lengthened/shortened at Microtubule Organizing Centers(MTOCS)
Helps move organelles/chromosomes |
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found in pairs near the nucleus
organize the microtubules that separate our chromosomes during cell division |
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| 1000's per cell, shorter than the cell body, propels materials past the cell 9+2 arrangement of microtubules |
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| 1-2 per cell, longer than the cell body, propels the cell through its environment 9 + 2 arrangement |
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non-membranous structure
helps the cell maintain its shape, divide, and move |
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Fluid mosaic model-describes structure of the membrane
Membranes are mosaics of several components held together by weak hydrophobic forces |
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Allows some materials to cross over bilayer but not others
allows O2, CO2 and other small nonpolar molecules, some water molecules
won't allow glucose and other large polar water soluable molecules, ions, water molecules |
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made by our bodies from fatty acids
adds strength and rigidity to animal cell membranes
not made by plants
starting material for making other sterols |
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| Proteins of cell membrane |
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some float freely among lipids, some anchored, some span lipid bilayer, some exposed only on one side of the membrane
proteins attached to carbohydrates-glycoproteins
proteins attached to lipids lipoproteins |
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major component of cell membrane non-polar fatty acid tails and polar phosphate head
semiperimeable
accounts for membrane fluidity and self sealing properties |
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| Dissolved solid or minor component (salt in seawater) |
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| liquid or major component(water in seawater) |
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| The movement of materials from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration or down a concentration gradient |
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| A difference in the concentration of any substance between different areas, often separated by a membrane or semi-permeable barrier |
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| the diffusion of polar molecules across a membrane through protein channels |
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| solutions of higher concentration (more dissolved solute) |
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| solutions of lower concentration (less dissolved solute) |
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| Solutions of equal concentrations |
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requires ATP, protein channel pumps or cytoskeleton involvement in endocytosis/exocytosis
Pumps solute against a concentration gradient |
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| main energy carrier, links chemical reactions that require energy with those that release energy, made of adenine, ribose, 3 phosphates |
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| Endocytosis (active transport) |
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| always requires ATP, requires movement of the cytoskeleton, plasma membrane engulfs materials in bulk forming vesicles, may require receptor proteins which bind molecules and interacts with the cytoskeleton |
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| engulfs liquids/cell drinking |
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| engulfs solids/cell eating |
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| Exocytosis (active transport) |
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| vesicles fuse with plasma membrane to excrete contents into the extracellular space, requires use of ATP, requires movement of vesicles along the cytoskeleton |
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| The transport of large molecules in and out of the cell via vesicles |
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| The energy of motion, the energy of a moving body |
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| stored energy, can be found in chemical bonds, concentration gradient |
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| First Law Of Thermodynamics |
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| Energy cannot be created or destroyed, Energy is always conserved |
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| First Law Of Thermodynamics |
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| Energy cannot be created or destroyed, Energy is always conserved |
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| Second Law of Thermodynamics |
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| All events proceed spontaneously toward entropy |
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| the degree of disorder or randomness in a system, non-useful energy |
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| a biological catalyst that speeds up a chemical reaction, most are proteins with a 3D shape, substrate and product specific |
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| initial input of energy to get a chemical reaction started |
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| Things that go into a chemical reaction |
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| Endergonic Chemical Reactions |
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Consume energy
Create chemical bonds(anabolic)
Trap electrons(reductive) |
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| Exergonic Chemical Reactions |
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Release energy
Break chemical bonds(catabolic)
Free up electrons(oxidative) |
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| breaks down and rebuilds ATP, releasing and absorbing energy |
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| large, organic molecules (vitamins) |
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| small, inorganic ions (minerals) |
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| reduces enzymes productivity by blocking substrate molecules from entering the active site |
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| a biological process occurs and the product of that process slows the process down and/or keeps the process from happening again. |
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| without oxygen, simple/primitive, glucose partially broken down into organic (3C)components, low energy yield (2ATP) occurs in cytoplasm |
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| requires oxygen, more complex/products of completely brown down into inorganic CO2 + H2O, high energy yield (36-38 ATP) occurs only in mitochondria |
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| derived from pyruvate produced by glycolysis, Acetyl(2C) combines with 4C molecule (oxaloacetate) creating citric acid (6C) |
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| An enzyme that carries acetyl into the mitochondria. |
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| occurs only in cells that do not have access to oxygen(anaerobic) or contain mitochondria (prokaryote cells) |
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| an enzyme that allows hydrogen to cross the phospholid bilayer and use the energy passing through to phosphoylate ATP |
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| A type of cell division which produces new cells that contain a complete set of genetically identical material. Divides somatic and stem cells |
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| Mitosis - Asexual reproduction |
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The creation of genetically identical offspring by a single parent, without the participation of sperm and egg;
An asexual copy is a CLONE of the original;single-singled organisms some multi-celled organisms plants, sponges, flatworms (planana, tapeworms) |
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The cell is not dividing, but is preparing for cell division
Cell growth occurs
Cells replicate their DNA
Nucleoli are present |
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proteins and lipids are made
Cell increases its volume (it grows)
Some organelles are duplicated(centrioles) |
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| Interphase - S phase (Synthesis) |
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DNA is replicated or copies
Chromosomes grow from one chromatid to two chromatids |
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Final preparation for cell division occurs
Excess protein and lipids accumulate |
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| A resting place for cells that cannot get past the G1 checkpoint; cells continue normal metabolism |
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Longest phase
Microtubules form the mitotic spindle between centrioles
Nuclear envelope breaks up
Chromatids become visible
Centrosomes move away from each other
Nucleolus disappears
Chromosomes condense
Kinetochares began to mature and attach to spindle |
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| Spindle fibers attach to kinetochores |
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Mitotic spindle is fully formed
Kinetochores attach chromosomes to mitotic spindle and align them along metaphase plate at the equator of the cell |
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Centromeres divide
Sister chromatids separate and become full fledged chromosomes that move to opposite poles |
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Chromosomes become less condensed and arrive at the poles
New nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis - the cytoplasm divides |
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| Two genetically identical diploid (2n)cells |
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| Meiosis (reduction division) |
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| A type of cell division that produces new cells containing only 1/2 of the complete set of genetic information. New cells are different;used for sexual reproduction; Divides germ cells (testes/ovaries) |
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| It requires fertilization of an egg and sperm |
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Gametes (egg and sperm)or sex cells
Meiosis I - produces two haploid cells
Meiosis II - produces four haploid cells |
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Chromosomes condense
Synapsis occurs - homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrad (4 chromatids) Chromatids of homologous chromatids cross over and exchange parts
Centrosomes move away from each other and form spindle microtubules between them
Nuclear envelope and nucleoli disperse
Spindle microtubules capture kinetochores and the chromosomes begin to move towards the metaphase plate
Crossing over occurs |
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Chromosome tetrads are aligned on the metaphase plate.
Kinetochore microtubules from one pole of cell attach to one homologous chromosome and kinetochore microtubules from the other pole of the cell are attached to the other chromosome of the pair |
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| Homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite poles |
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| A spindle forms in a haploid cell and the chromosomes move toward the middle of each cell |
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The chromosomes arrive the poles.
The nuclear envelope forms
Cytokinesis occurs, producing two haploid daughter cells |
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| Chromosomes align single file on the metaphase plate, not in homologous pairs |
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| Sister chromatids are pulled apart |
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| Nuclei form at opposite poles of each dividing cell, and cytokinesis splits the cells apart producing four haploid cells |
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| (2n)A cell consisting of two sets of chromosomes (46 chromosomes) one set inherited from each parent |
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| Human Diploid Cells contain: |
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23 pairs (46 total)
22 pairs of homologous pairs (autosomes)and 1 pair of non-homologous sex chromosomes (XX or XY) |
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| (n)A term used when a cell only has one set of chromosomes (23 chromosomes) |
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| Division of cytoplasm in late Anaphase and Telophase |
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| Division of Nucleus (and its chromosomes) in prophase, metaphase, and anaphase |
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| The cell that is capable of developing into any cell type |
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| they can develop into most specialized cells and tissues of the body such as muscle cells, nerve cells, liver cells, and blood cells |
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| In humans - partially specialized cells that can still divide and become many, but not all types of cells |
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| As a cell divides the new cell will specializes to take on a particular structure and function |
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| A disc like structure found inside the dividing cells in plants separating the daughter cells during cell division. Cytokinesis is carried out by the formation of the cell plate. |
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| In humans - specialized body cells that usually cannot divide;Human cell containing 46 chromosomes |
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| In humans- specialized cells that can divide;new germ cells are produced by mitosis |
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| A method of asexual reproduction and cell division used by prokaryotic cells. It involves duplication of DNA, DNA attaches to cell membrane, and divides into two daughter cells |
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| aggregates of microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division |
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| a single copy of DNA that is found in a chromosome |
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| the part of the chromosome that links sister chromatids |
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| Histone proteins(nucleosome) |
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| "balls" that DNA wraps around in order to help DNA coil itself and condense into a chromosome during interphase |
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| basic physical unit of heredity a linear sequence of nucleotides along a segment of DNA that provides the coded instructions for synthesis of RNA, which, when translated into protein, leads to the expression of hereditary character. |
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| An imaginary plane perpendicular to the spindle fibers of a dividing cell, along which chromosomes align during metaphase |
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| a gene that causes cancer |
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| A normal gene which, when altered by mutation, becomes an oncogene that can contribute to cancer |
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| These chromosomes are the same size/length, the centromeres are in the same location (same shape), contain the same genes(eye color)at the same position (loci)one comes from mother and one comes from father |
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| unit of asexual reproduction adapted to spending a long period of time in unfavorable conditions before developing into an offspring of the plant, algae, fungi, or protozoan that created it |
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| 2 Homologous pairs of chromosomes that align in the metaphase stage. |
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| The process of homologous chromosomes exchanging segments that result in a re-arrangement of genetic information. |
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| Random/Independent Assortment |
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| Tetrads align randomly or independently from each other; the orientation of each pair of homologs is randomly determined; maternal and paternal chromosomes may end up on either side of the metaphase plate |
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| Random/Independent assortment/crossing over accounts for: |
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genetic variability in sexually produced offspring
2 to the 23 power (8,388,608) is number of different chromosome combination possible by random assortment alone in humans |
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| an abnormal number of chromosomes |
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| the point where two homologous non-sister chromatids exchange genetic material during chromosomal crossover during meiosis |
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| Joins haploid gametes to produce diploid zygote |
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All living things are composed of cells
The cell is the simplest level of biological complexity, the smallest living thing, and the basic unit of life
All cells arise from pre-existing cells |
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| Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane |
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| occurs the the stroma; uses the energy of ATP and NADPH to build a sugar molecule |
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| builds up inside the thylakoid |
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| A groove formed in an animal cell when the microfilaments that encircle the cell at the metaphase plate begin to shorten 'pinching" the cytoplasm. Cytokinesis is carried out by the formation of the cleavage furrow |
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occurs in the cytoplasm
Anaerobic
Input - Glucose, 2 ATP
Products - 2 pyruvate, 2 NADH, 4 ATP (net gain of 2 ATP) |
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Input - Pyruvate (3c)molecule
Output - Acetyl a 2C molecule
NADH |
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Electrons from NADH are donated in inner mitochondrial matrix to cytochromes on cristae
Cytochromes(electron carriers) Pump H+ to outer mitochondrial space form chemiosmatic gradient
ATP synthase on cristae allow H+ to cross uses energy to make ATP
Products ADP + P ATP
2 H+ + 1/2 O2 + 2e- H2O |
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