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| division of the nuclei of cells- equal distribution of chromosomes into daughter nuclei |
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| cytoplasm divides in cell |
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| chromosomes condense, mitotic spindle forms (spindle apparatus composed of microtubules) that moves the chromosomes |
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| chromosomes move to the equator of the cell |
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| sister chromatids seperate and move to opposite poles |
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| cell begins to divide-mitotic spindle breaks down-cytokinesis occurs |
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| Cytokinsis in animals occurs |
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| by cleavage (this process pinches the cell apart) |
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| Cytokinisis in plants occurs.. |
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| the cell plate splits the cell into two |
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| 3 things that happen when the mitosis cell cycle operates normally |
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| 1-growth. 2-cell replacement. 3-asexual reproduction (no genetic variation) offspring are exactly like the parents |
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| most normal cells divide only when attached to a surface |
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| Density dependence inhibition |
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| cells continues dividing until they touch one another |
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| anchorage and density-dependent inhibition |
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| when they touch they stop dividing because they won't form multiple layers |
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| divide excessively and can invade other tissues and displace normal cells |
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| growth of cancer cells beyond the original site |
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| cancers that originate in the external or internal linings of the body |
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| in tissues that support the body-bone and muscles |
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| in blood forming tissues, blood marrow, spleen, lymph nodes |
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| high energy radiation is used to destoy dividing cells-targets cancer cells, but can destroy normal cells |
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| drugs that disrupt cell division (Taxol-impairs the function of the mitotic spindle-discovered in the bark of the pacific yew) |
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| produces genetic variety among offspring-inherit chromosomes from each parent |
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| carry genes controlling the same inherited characteristics different versions of genes (alleles) code for different variation so of characteristics (we all have 46 chromosomes) |
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| Sex chromomomes determine.. |
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| two homologous sets of chromosomes (2n) in humans diploid number is 46 (2n=26) |
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| egg and sprerm-haploid (single set of chromosomes) (n=23 in humans) |
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| cell division that forms gametes-repoductive organs |
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| chromosomes duplicate. 2 divisions occur in meiosis that form 4 haploid daughter cells |
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| in synapsis, homologous chromosome pairs come together and form a tetrad. These pairs exchange segments (crossing over). Spindle forms-tetrads start to move towards the center of the cell |
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| homologous chromosomes align on the metaphase plate. (align in randow order) |
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| homologous chromosomes seperate and move towards opposite poles |
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| chromosomes arrive at opposite ends of the cell and the cell divides in cytokinesis |
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| sister chromosomes align in the center of the cell (metaphase plate) |
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| sister chromatids seperate and move to the opposite poles of the cell (each sister chromosomes is now considered individual chromosomes) |
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| chromosomes arrive at the opposite poles and cytokinesis begins-forms 4 haploid cells when complete. (1 diploid to 4 haploid)(each cell consists of single chromosomes) |
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| each pair of homologous chromosomes orients itself on the metaphase plate independently of other pairs in meiosis 1 |
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| Number of possible combinations=2^n, n=number of chromosomes in the gamete |
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| so in humans in one gamete =2^23 or about 8 million |
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| genes for the same characteristic are found at |
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| corresponding loci (location of the chromosomes on homologous chromosomes) |
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| the exchange of corresponding segments between 2 homolous chromosome-adds to genetic variability |
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| the production of gene combinations different from those on the original chromosomes-result of crossing over |
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| Summary of Mendel's hypothesis |
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1. there are alternative forms of genes=alleles
2.for each characteristic an organism has 2 genes, one from each parent
3.a sperm or egg carries only one allele for each trait
4. dominant and recessive alleles |
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| physical trait ex yellow seeds |
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| first generation of offspring |
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| the expression of two differnt alleles of a gene in a heterozygote (both genes are dominant) |
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| alleles at a single locus may have effects on two or more traits Ex. Marfan syndrome |
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| traits affected by genes at more than one loci |
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| continues range in a given trait among individuals |
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| phenotypes are a combination of... |
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| genetics and environment ex himalayan rabbit |
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| Humans have __ pairs of autosomes and __ pair of sex chromosomes |
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| contains master gene for sex determination, contains very few genes |
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| more genes than y chromosome, many deal with nonsexual traits. genes on x chromosome can be expressed in both males and females |
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| chart of genetic connections among individuals-used to follow traits in humans through generations and determine the genotypes of individuals |
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| trait is carried on the x chromosome. appears more in males than females such as hemophilia and colorblindness |
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| autosomal recessive inheritance |
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| two recessive alleles must be present for traits to be destroyed |
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| carried by dominant alleles ex. huntington's disease |
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| special type of dominant disorder, arises as the result of a spontaneous mutation |
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| 1 more or 1 few chromosome than normal |
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| chromosome pairs or sister chromatids fail to seperate=causes abnormal number of chromosomes in gametes |
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| xxy-possible sterlity, reduction in testosterone production |
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| metafemales- limited fertility |
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| only 1 x chromosome-sterile, short stature, webbing of the neck |
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| polymer of nucleotides, composed of phosphate |
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| phosphate group, nitrogenous base, 5 carbon sugar. |
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| adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine |
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1.each parent strand remains intact-template
2.every DNA molecule is half old and half new
3. Each old strand serves as a template for the new strand |
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1. Enzymes unwind the two strands
2. DNA polymerase attaches complementary nucleotides
3. DNA ligase joins fragments on lagging strand |
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| contains instructions for how to build proteins |
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| carries protein building instructions from the nucleus to the ribsome |
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| delivers amino acids to the ribosome |
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| RNA has uracil (U) instead of |
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1. DNA is transcribed to form mRNA in the nucleus. The mRNA travels to the ribosome.
2. At the ribosome RNA is translated to form polypeptide clains that make up proteins |
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| single stand of mRNA is formed from a DNA template |
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composed of three nucleotide bases found on the mRNA, these "triplets" of bases code for specific amino acid = genetic code.
1. 61 different codons code for amino acid
2. 3 are stop condons |
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1.tRNA attach to amino acids in the cytoplasm and bring them to the ribosome.
2. tRNA have base triplets called anticodons that complement the codons found on the mRNA
3.tRNA attach to the amino acid bind to the mRNA strand bringing the amino acid to the ribosome in the process
4. Amino acids are strung together to make polypeptides that compose proteins |
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