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The process of change that has transformed life on Earth from its earliest beginnings to the diversity of organisms living today
Descent with modification
The change in the genetic composition of a population from generation to generation |
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Order
Evolutionary adaptation
Response to environment
Reproduction
Regulation
Energy processing
Growth and development |
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| New properties that arise with each step upward in the hierarchy of life, owing to the arrangement and interactions of parts as complexity increases |
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| An approach to studying biology that aims to model the dynamic behavior of whole biological systems based on a study of the interactions among the system's parts |
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| The entire portion of Earth inhabited by life; the sum of all the planet's ecosystems |
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| consists of all the living things in a particular area, along with all the nonliving components of the environment with which life interacts |
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| The entire array of organisms inhabiting a particular ecosystem is called a biological community |
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| Consists of all the individuals of a species living within the bounds of a specified area |
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| A body part that carries out a particular function in the body |
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| Each tissue is made up of a group of cells that work together, performing a specialized function. |
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| Life's fundamental unit of structure and function |
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| The various functional components present in cells |
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| Is a chemical structure consisting of two or more small chemical units, called atoms |
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| Three Levels of Biodiversity |
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1. Genetic diversity
2. Species diversity
3. Ecosystem diversity |
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| Comprises not only the individual genetic variation within a population, but also the genetic variation between populations that is often associated with adaptations to local conditions |
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| The variety of species in an ecosystem or across the biosphere. As more species are lost to extinction, species diversity decreases |
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| Species is lost from all ecosystems in which it lived, leaving them permanetly impoverished |
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| Encompass all the processes through which natural ecosystems help sustain human life |
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| Examples of Threats to Biodiversity |
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| Habitat loss, introduced species, overharvesting, and global change |
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| Are those that humans move intentially or accidentally from the species native locations to new geographic regions |
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| Viewed species as fixed, recognized certain affinities among organisms |
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| Developed the two-part, or binomial, format for naming species |
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| Developed the idea of catastrophism |
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The principle that events in the past occured suddenly and were caused by mechanisms different from those operating in the present
Each boundary between strata represented a catastrophe |
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| Proposed that Earth's geologic features could be explained by gradual mechanisms still operating today |
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| Developed the idea of uniformitarianism-stated that mechanisms of change are constant over time |
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Use and disuse-the idea that parts of the body that are used extensively become larger and stronger, while those that aren't used deteriorate
Inheritance of acquired characteristics-stated that an organism could pass these modifications to its offspring |
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Adaptations-inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their survival and reproduction in specific environments
Natural selection-a process in which individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits |
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| Humans have modified other species over time and many generations by selecting and breeding individuals that process desired traits |
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is a process in which individuals that have certain heritable traits survive and reproduce at a higher rate than other individuals because of those traits
-Over time, natural selection can increase the match between organisms and their environment
-If an environment changes, or if individuals move to a new environments, natural selection may result in adaptation to these new conditions, sometimes giving rise to new species
-Occurs through interactions between individual organisms and their environment, individual don't evolve, rather the population evolves over time
-Can amplify or diminish only those heritable traits that differ among the individuals in a population |
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| Small scale evolution, small changes in allele frequencies in a population over generations |
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| Three Mechanisms causing allele frequency change |
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1. Natural selection
2. Genetic Drift
3. Gene Flow |
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Differences among individuals in the composition of their genes or other DNA segments
Without genetic variation, evolution cannot occur |
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| Can be classified on either-or basis |
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| Vary along a continuum within a population |
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| The average percentage of local that are heterozygous |
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| Differences in the genetic composition of spearate populations |
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| A graded change in a character along a geographic axis |
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| A change as little as one base in a gene |
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The process by which one species splits into two or more species
When one species plits into two, the species that result share many characteristics because they are descended from this common ancestral species |
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| The broad pattern of evolution above the species level |
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| Is a group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed in nature and produce viable, fertile offspring |
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| The existence of biological factors that impede members of two species from interbreeding and producing viable, fertile offspring |
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Block fertilization from occuring
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| May contribute to reproductive isolation after the hybrid zygote is formed |
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| Two specties that occupy different habitats within the same area may encounter eachother rarely, if at all |
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| Species that breed during different times cannot mix their gametes |
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| Courtship rituals that attract mates and other behaviors unique to a species are effective reproductive barriers |
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| Mating is attempted, but morphological differences prevent its successful completion |
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| Sperm of one species may not be able to fertilize the eggs of another species |
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| The genes of different parent species may interact in ways that impair the hybrids development or survival in its environments |
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| Even if hybrids are vigorous, they may be sterile |
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| Some first-generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but when they mate with one another or with either parent species, offspring of the next generation are feeble or sterile. |
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| Morphological Species Concept |
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| Characterizes a species by body shape and other structural features |
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| Ecological Species Concept |
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| Views a species in terms of its ecological niche, the sum of how members of the species interact with the nonliving and living parts of their environment |
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| Phylogenetic Species Concept |
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| Defines a species as the smallest group of individuals that share a common ancestor, forming one branch on the tree of life |
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Gene flow is interrupted when a population is divided into geographically isolated subpopulations
Once geographic separation has occured, the separated gene pools may diverge |
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| Speciation occurs in populations that live in the same geographic area |
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| A species may origniate from an accident during cell division that results in extra sets of chromosomes |
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| Is an individual that has more than two chromosome sets that are all derived from a single species |
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In subsequent generations, various mechnisms can change a sterile hybrid into a fertile polyploid
Are fertile when mating whith eachother but cannot interbreed with either parent species |
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| A region in which members of different species meet and mate, producing at least some offspring of mixed ancestry |
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| Strengthening of reproductive barriers, hybrids gradually cease to be formed |
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| Weakening of reproductive barrier, the two species fuse |
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| Continued production of hybrid individuals |
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| To describe these periods of apparent stasis punctuated by sudden change |
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Related species can have characteristics that have an underlying similarity yet function differently
Similarity resulting from common ancestry |
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The underlying skeletons of the arms, forelegs, flippers, and wings of different mamals are homologous structures that represent variations on a structural theme that was present in their common ancestor
Share common ancestry, but not similar function |
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| Are remnants of features that served as a function in the organisms ancestors |
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| A diagram that feflects evolutionary relationships among groups of organisms |
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| The independent evolution of similar features in different lineages |
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Species share features because of convergent evolution, resemblances is said to be analogous
Share similar function, but not common ancestry |
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| The geographic distribution of species |
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| Found nowhere else in the world |
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| The evolutionary history of a species or group of species |
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| A discipline focused on classifying organisms and determining their evolutionary relationships |
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| How organisms are named and classified |
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| The two part format of the scientific name |
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| Kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species |
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| The evolutionary history of a group of organisms can be represented in a branching diagram |
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| Only names groups that include a common ancestor and all of its descendants |
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| Relationships often are depicted as a series of dichotomies, or two-way branch points |
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| Groups of organisms that share an immediate common ancestor |
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| Means that a branch point within the treee represents the most recent common ancestor of all taxa in the tree |
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| Refers to a lineage that diverges early in the history of a group |
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| A branch point from which more than two descendant groups emerge |
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| Analogous structures that arose independently are also called homoplasies |
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| The discipline that uses data from DNA and other molecules to determine evolutionary realtionships |
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| Attempts to place species into groups called clades |
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| It consists of an ancestral species and all its descendants |
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| Consists of an ancestral species and some, but not all of, its descendants |
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| Group which includes taxa with different ancestors |
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| Shared ancestral character |
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| A character that originated in an ancestor of the taxon |
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| An evolutionary novelty unique to a clade |
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| A species or group of species from an evolutionary lineage that is known to have diverged before the lineage that includes the species we are studying (the ingroup) |
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| Investigate the simplest explanation that is consistent with the facts |
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| States that given certain probability rules about how DNA sequences change over time |
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| Are those found in different species, and their divergence traces back to the speciation events that produced the species |
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| The homology results from gene duplication, hence multiple copies of these genes have diverged from one another within a species |
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| A yardstick for measuring the absolute time of evolutionary change based on the observation that some genes and other regions of genomes appear to evolve at constant rates |
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| That much evolutionary change in genes and proteins has no effect on fitness and therefore is not influenced by natural selection |
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| A process in which genes are transferred from one genome to another through mechanisms such as exchange of transposable elements and plasmids, viral infection, and perhaps fusions of organisms |
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